Principle of Management

The purpose of this paper is to discuss Verwaayen decision-making skills in leadership role at Alcatel-Lucent. I will explain in details the manner in which decisions were made, risk factor, and the contribution to business. The decisions managers make at all level in business have a remarkable impact on the growth and wealth of the companies and the interests of employees, customers, and other stakeholders. Verwaayen resigned from Alcatel-Lucent in 2013 due to poor job performance.Ben Verwaayen is a Dutch businessman. He graduated from Utrecht University with a degree in law and international relation in 1975. He has been the CEO of Alcatel-Lucent since 2008. Verwaayen was under pressure to help (Alcatel-Lucent) a stressed networking-equipment manufacturer to become profitable again. Firstly, I will describe the type of decisions Verwaayen made as CEO. Secondly, I will publicize the risks and uncertainty made. Thirdly, I will explain what decision-making strategy management used.Las tly, I will expound on the ways I assume Verwaayen contribute organization’s learning at Alcatel-Lucent. Firstly, I will describe the type of decisions Verwaayen made as CEO. On Verwaayen first day as CEO, he received an email asking him for approval to hire a new secretary in a Poland office after 16 executives had already agreed. Verwaayen was surprise that executives had agreed to hire someone they never met or talked to. He put in place a directive allowing managers to hire their own personnel. This was the first decision that Verwaayen made at Alcatel-Lucent.Decision-making is the process by which managers react to opportunities and pressure by analyzing the choices and making decisions about certain organizational aspirations and courses of action according to Jones and George page (149) in our textbook. There are two types of decision-making; programmed or nonprogrammed. Verwaayen used programmed decision-making when he gave the managers authority to hire own staff. Ot her decisions that Verwaayen made including the company stopped hedging and wage that a 4G wireless LTE technology would materialize instead of rival WiMax.Secondly, Verwaayen decisions had a dramatic impact on Alcatel-Lucent, as well as opportunity risk. The decisions Verwaayen imposed helped Alcatel-Lucent redevelop their infrastructure, profits, and increased the stock value. Verwaayen gave the managers the responsibility to pursue issues that are important to them. The business goal that executives put forward as the new Alcatel-Lucent norms after the merger in 2008 worked for the executives. Risks and uncertainties in these decisions could have been overwhelming to the structure of the business.Accountability by managers could have abused to seek personal gain instead of business, and the decision to spend greatly on the 4G LTE technology could have fail if the key carriers in the Unites States chose to use other networking methods for their smart phones. Thirdly, Verwaayen and other top managers choose to pursue major issues in which they found to be critical toward the current culture and infrastructure of the company. Upon changing the culture and structure of the company Verwaayen and his top managers were able to make case by case decisions for the company.I believe if Verwaayen had used these six steps with the other managers: recognize the need for a decision, generate alternatives, choose among alternatives, implement the chosen alternative, and learn from feedback there would have been a different outcome. Lastly, I believe that Verwaayen could contribute organizational learning at Alcatel-Lucent varies ways. Verwaayen has a enormous knowledge of the organization’s marketplace as well as the stakeholders at Alcatel-Lucent.Verwaayen could teach management what it takes to run a successful business from his past experience. Learning from past mistakes within an organization is vital. Verwaayen should motivate managers to engage in entreprene urial intrapreneur spirit. Entrepreneurs have a high personality trait of openness to experience, meaning they are prone to be original, open minded, daring, and take risks. Also organizations need encourage intrapreneurship because it leads to organizational learning and innovation.In conclusion, Verwaayen made some great decisions as the CEO of Alcatel-Lucent during his time in power. He also empowered his managers to hire their own staff and gave them some responsibilities to seek out employees that had skill that are valuable to the company and allowed accountability for poor decision making. Verwaayen is instrumental in ending the Alcatel-Lucent hedge and investing heavily on 4G LTE technology. Verwaayen made some poor decisions that were not profitable for the company. I agree with the decision to ask Verwaayen to resign from his post in 2013.

Ashoka the Great

Ashoka From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia â€Å"Asoka† redirects here. For other uses, see  Ashoka (disambiguation). |Ashoka the Great | |Mauryan  Samrat | |[pic] | |A Chakravatin (possibly Ashoka) first century BC/CE.Andhra Pradesh, | |Amaravati. Preserved at Musee Guimet | |Reign |273-232 BC | |Coronation |270 BC | |Full name |Ashoka Bindusara Maurya | |Titles |Samrat.Other titles include Devanampriya Priyadarsi, | | |Dhammarakhit, Dharmarajika, Dhammarajika, Dhammaradnya, | | |Chakravartin, Samrat, Radnyashreshtha, Magadhrajshretha, | | |Magadharajan, Bhupatin, Mauryaraja, Aryashok, Dharmashok, | | |Dhammashok, Asokvadhhan , Ashokavardhan, | | |Prajapita,Dhammanayak, Dharmanayak | |Born |304 BC | |Birthplace |Pataliputra,  Patna | |Died |232 BC (aged 72) | |Place of death |Pataliputra,  Patna | |Buried |Ashes immersed in theGanges  River, possibly | | |atVaranasi,  Cremated  232 BC, less than 24 hours after death | |Predecessor |Bindusara | |Successor |Dasa ratha Maurya | |Consort |Maharani Devi | |Wives |Rani  Tishyaraksha | | |Rani  Padmavati | | |Rani  Kaurwaki | |Offspring |Mahendra,Sanghamitra,Teevala, Kunala | |Royal House |Mauryan dynasty | |Father |Bindusara | |Mother |Rani Dharma or Shubhadrangi | |Religious |Buddhism,Humanism | |beliefs | | Ashoka  (Devanagari: ,  IAST:  Asoka,  IPA:  [a o? k? , 304–232 BC), popularly known as  Ashoka the Great, was an  Indian  emperor  of the  Maurya Dynasty  who ruled almost all of the  Indian subcontinent  from 269 BC to 232 BC. One of India's greatest emperors, Ashoka reigned over most of present-day India after a number of military conquests. His empire stretched from present-dayPakistan,  Afghanistan  in the west, to the present-day  Bangladesh  and the Indian state of  Assam  in the east, and as far south as northern  Kerala  andAndhra. He conquered the kingdom named  Kalinga, which no one in his dynasty had conquered starting f rom  Chandragupta Maurya. His reign was headquartered in  Magadha  (present-day  Bihar, India). 1]He embraced  Buddhism  from the prevalentVedic  tradition after witnessing the mass deaths of the  war of Kalinga, which he himself had waged out of a desire for conquest. He was later dedicated to the propagation of Buddhism across  Asia  and established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of  Gautama Buddha. Ashoka was a devotee of  ahimsa  (nonviolence),  love,  truth,tolerance  and  vegetarianism. Ashoka is remembered in history as a  philanthropicadministrator. In the  history of India  Ashoka is referred to as  Samraat  Chakravartin  Ashoka- the Emperor of Emperors  Ashoka. His name â€Å"asoka† means â€Å"without sorrow† inSanskrit  (a= no/without, soka= sorrow or worry).In his  edicts, he is referred to as Devanampriya (Devanagari: )/Devana? iya  or â€Å"The Beloved Of The Gods†, an d Priyadarsin (Devanagari: )/Piyadassi  or â€Å"He who regards everyone with affection†. Another title of his is Dhamma (prakrit: ), â€Å"Lawful, Religious, Righteous†. Renowned  British  author and  social critic  H. G. Wells  in his bestselling two-volume work,  The Outline of History  (1920), wrote of emperor Ashoka: In the history of the world there have been thousands of kings and emperors who called themselves ‘their highnesses,' ‘their majesties,' and ‘their exalted majesties' and so on. They shone for a brief moment, and as quickly disappeared. But Ashoka shines and shines brightly like a bright star, even unto this day.Along with the  Edicts of Ashoka, his legend is related in the later second century  Asokavadana(â€Å"Narrative of Asoka†) and  Divyavadana  (â€Å"Divine narrative†), and in the  Sri Lankan  text  Mahavamsa(â€Å"Great Chronicle†). After two thousand years, the influence of Ashoka is seen in  Asia  and especially the  Indian subcontinent. An emblem excavated from his empire is today the national  Emblem of India. In the  History of Buddhism  Ashoka is considered just afterGautama Buddha. |Contents | |  [show] | Biography Early life |[pic] |This article  needs additional  citations  for  verification. | | |Please help  improve this article  by adding  reliable references.Unsourced | | |material may be  challenged  and  removed. (January 2009) | Ashoka was born to the  Mauryan  emperor  Bindusara  and his Queen ‘Dharma' (although she was a  Brahmin  or Shubhadrangi, she was undervalued as she wasn't of royal blood). Ashoka had several elder siblings (all half-brothers from other wives of Bindusara). He had just one younger sibling, Vitthashoka (a much loved brother from the same mother). Because of his exemplary intellect and warrior skills, he was said to have been the favorite of his grandfather  Chandragupta Maurya. As the legend goes, when Chandragupta Maurya left his empire for a  Jain  living, he threw his  sword  away. Ashoka ound the sword and kept it, in spite of his grandfather's warning. Ashoka, in his adolescence, was rude and naughty.He was a fearsome hunter. He was akshatriya  and was given all royal military trainings and other  Vedic  knowledge. According to a legend, he killed a Lion with just a wooden rod. Ashoka was very well known for his sword fighting. He was very adventurous and this made him a terrific fighter. Ashoka was a frightening warrior and a heartless general. Because of this quality he was sent to destroy the riot of  Avanti. Rise to power [pic] [pic] Maurya Empire  at the age of Ashoka. The empire stretched from  Iran  to  Bangladesh/Assam  and from  Central Asia  (Afganistan) to  Tamil Nadu/South India.Developing into an impeccable warrior general and a shrewd statesman, Ashoka went on to command several regim ents of the Mauryan army. His growing popularity across the empire made his elder brothers wary of his chances of being favored by  Bindusarato become the next emperor. The eldest of them,  Susima, the traditional heir to the throne, persuaded Bindusara to send Ashoka to quell an uprising inTaxshila, a city in the north-west District of Pakistani Punjab region, for which Prince Susima was the Governor. Taxshila was a highly volatile place because of the war-like Indo-Greek population and mismanagement by Susima himself. This had led to the formation of different militias causing unrest. Ashoka complied and left for the troubled area.As news of Ashoka's visit with his army trickled in, he was welcomed by the revolting militias and the uprising ended without a conflict. (The province revolted once more during the rule of Ashoka, but this time the uprising was crushed with an iron fist) Ashoka's success made his stepbrothers more wary of his intentions of becoming the emperor and m ore incitements from Susima led Bindusara to send Ashoka into exile. He went intoKalinga  and stayed there incognito. There he met a fisher woman named  Kaurwaki, with whom he fell in love. Recently found inscriptions indicate that she would later become either his second or third queen. Meanwhile, there was again a violent uprising in  Ujjain.Emperor Bindusara summoned Ashoka out of exile after two years. Ashoka went into Ujjain and in the ensuing battle was injured, but his generals quelled the uprising. Ashoka was treated in hiding so that loyalists of the Susima group could not harm him. He was treated by  Buddhist  monks and nuns. This is where he first learned the teachings of the  Buddha, and it is also where he met Devi, who was his personal nurse and the daughter of a merchant from adjacent Vidisha. After recovering, he married her. It was quite unacceptable to Bindusara that one of his sons should marry a Buddhist, so he did not allow Ashoka to stay in  Patal iputra  but instead sent him back to Ujjain and made him the governor of Ujjain.The following year passed quite peacefully for him, and Devi was about to deliver his first child. In the meanwhile, Emperor Bindusara died. As the news of the unborn heir to the throne spread, Prince Susima planned the execution of the unborn child; however, the assassin who came to kill Devi and her child killed his mother instead. Ashoka beheads his elder brother to ascend the throne. In this phase of his life, Ashoka was known for his unquenched thirst for wars and campaigns launched to conquer the lands of other rulers and became known as Chandashok (terrible Ashoka), the Sanskrit word  chanda  meaning cruel, fierce, or rude,  Chandi-devi being associated with  Kali.Ascending the throne, Ashoka expanded his empire over the next eight years, from the present-day boundaries and regions of  Burma–Bangladesh  and the state of  Assam  in India in the east to the territory of pres ent-day  Iran  /  Persia  and  Afghanistan  in the west; from the  Pamir  Knots in the north almost to the peninsular of  southern India  (i. e. Tamilnadu  /  Andhra pradesh). Conquest of Kalinga Main article:  Kalinga War While the early part of Ashoka's reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty, he became a follower of the  Buddha's teaching after his conquest of Kalinga on the east coast of India in the present-day state of  Orissa. Kalinga was a state that prided itself on its sovereignty and democracy. With its monarchical parliamentary democracy it was quite an exception in ancient Bharata where there existed the concept of  Rajdharma. Rajdharma means the duty of the rulers, which was intrinsically entwined with the concept of bravery and  Kshatriya  dharma.The pretext for the start of the  Kalinga War  (265 BC or 263 BC) is uncertain. One of Susima's brothers might have fled to Kalinga and found official refuge there. This enraged Ashoka immensely. He was advised by his ministers to attack Kalinga for this act of treachery. Ashoka then asked Kalinga's royalty to submit before his supremacy. When they defied this diktat, Ashoka sent one of his generals to Kalinga to make them submit. The general and his forces were, however, completely routed through the skilled tact of Kalinga's commander-in-chief. Ashoka, baffled at this defeat, attacked with the greatest invasion ever recorded in Indian history until then.Kalinga put up a stiff resistance, but they were no match for Ashoka's brutal strength. The whole of Kalinga was plundered and destroyed. Ashoka's later edicts state that about 100,000 people were killed on the Kalinga side and 10,000 from Ashoka's army. Thousands of men and women were deported. Buddhist conversion |[pic] |This article  needs additional  citations  for  verification. | | |Please help  improve this article  by adding  reliable references. Unsourced | | |material may be  challengedà ‚  and  removed. (March 2009) | [pic] [pic] A similar four â€Å"Indian lion† Lion Capital of Ashoka atop an ntact  Ashoka Pillar  at Wat U Mong near Chiang Mai,  Thailandshowing another larger  Dharma Chakra  /Ashoka Chakra  atop the four lions thought to be missing in the Lion Capital of Ashoka at  Sarnath Museum  which has been adopted as the  National Emblem of India. As the legend goes, one day after the war was over, Ashoka ventured out to roam the city and all he could see were burnt houses and scattered corpses. This sight made him sick and he cried the famous monologue: What have I done? If this is a victory, what's a defeat then? Is this a victory or a defeat? Is this justice or injustice? Is it gallantry or a rout? Is it valor to kill innocent children and women? Do I do it to widen the empire and for prosperity or to destroy the other's kingdom and splendor?One has lost her husband, someone else a father, someone a child, someone an unborn infa nt†¦. What's this debris of the corpses? Are these marks of victory or defeat? Are these vultures, crows, eagles the messengers of death or evil? The brutality of the conquest led him to adopt Buddhism and he used his position to propagate the relatively new religion to new heights, as far as ancient Rome and Egypt. He made Buddhism his state religion around 260 BC, and propagated it and preached it within his domain and worldwide from about 250 BC. Emperor Ashoka undoubtedly has to be credited with the first serious attempt to develop a Buddhist policy. [pic] [pic] Ashokan Pillar at  VaishaliProminent in this cause were his son VenerableMahindra  and daughter  Sanghamitra  (whose name means â€Å"friend of the Sangha†), who established Buddhism in Ceylon (now  Sri Lanka). He built thousands of Stupas and Viharas for Buddhist followers. The Stupas of Sanchi are world famous and the stupa named  Sanchi Stupa  was built by Emperor Ashoka. During the remaining portion of Ashoka's reign, he pursued an official policy of  nonviolence  (ahimsa). Even the unnecessary slaughter or mutilation of people was immediately abolished. Everyone became protected by the king's  law  against sport hunting and branding. Limited hunting was permitted for consumption reasons but Ashoka also promoted the concept of vegetarianism.Ashoka also showed mercy to those imprisoned, allowing them leave for the outside a day of the year. He attempted to raise the professional ambition of the common man by building universities for study, and water transit and irrigation systems for trade and agriculture. He treated his subjects as equals regardless of their religion, politics and caste. The kingdoms surrounding his, so easily overthrown, were instead made to be well-respected allies. He is acclaimed for constructing hospitals for animals and renovating major roads throughout India. After this transformation, Ashoka came to be known as Dhammashoka (Sanskrit), meaning Ashoka, the follower of Dharma.Ashoka defined the main principles of dharma (dhamma) as nonviolence, tolerance of all sects and opinions, obedience to parents, respect for the Brahmans and other religious teachers and priests, liberality towards friends, humane treatment of servants, and generosity towards all. These principles suggest a general ethic of behaviour to which no religious or social group could object. Some critics say that Ashoka was afraid of more wars, but among his neighbors, including theSeleucid Empire  and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom established by  Diodotus I, none could match his strength. He was a contemporary of both  Antiochus I Soter  and his successor  Antiochus II Theos  of the Seleucid dynasty as well as  Diodotus I  and his son  Diodotus II  of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom.If his inscriptions and edicts are well studied one finds that he was familiar with the Hellenic world but never in awe of it. His edicts, which talk of frien dly relations, give the names of both Antiochus of the Seleucid empire and  Ptolemy III  of  Egypt. The fame of theMauryan  empire was widespread from the time that Ashoka's grandfather  Chandragupta Mauryadefeated  Seleucus Nicator, the founder of the Seleucid Dynasty. [pic] [pic] Stupa of  Sanchi. The source of much of our knowledge of Ashoka is the many inscriptions he had carved on pillars and rocks throughout the empire. Emperor Ashoka is known as Piyadasi (in  Pali) or Priyadarshi (in  Sanskrit) meaning â€Å"good looking† or â€Å"favored by the gods with good blessing†.All his inscriptions have the imperial touch and show compassionate loving. He addressed his people as his â€Å"children†. These inscriptions promoted Buddhist morality and encouraged nonviolence and adherence to Dharma (duty or proper behavior), and they talk of his fame and conquered lands as well as the neighboring kingdoms holding up his might. One also gets some pri mary information about the Kalinga War and Ashoka's allies plus some useful knowledge on the civil administration. The Ashoka Pillar at  Sarnath  is the most popular of the relics left by Ashoka. Made of sandstone, this pillar records the visit of the emperor to Sarnath, in the third century BC.It has a four-lion capital (four lions standing back to back) which was adopted as the emblem of the modern Indian republic. The lion symbolizes both Ashoka's imperial rule and the kingship of the  Buddha. In translating these monuments, historians learn the bulk of what is assumed to have been true fact of the Mauryan Empire. It is difficult to determine whether or not some actual events ever happened, but the stone etchings clearly depict how Ashoka wanted to be thought of and remembered. Ashoka's own words as known from his  Edicts  are: â€Å"All men are my children. I am like a father to them. As every father desires the good and the happiness of his children, I wish that all men should be happy always. Edward D'Cruz interprets the Ashokan dharma as a â€Å"religion to be used as a symbol of a new imperial unity and a cementing force to weld the diverse and heterogeneous elements of the empire†. Also, in the Edicts, Ashoka mentions Hellenistic kings of the period as converts to Buddhism, although no Hellenic historical record of this event remain: The conquest by  Dharma  has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred  yojanas  (5,400–9,600 km) away, where the Greek king  Antiochos  rules, beyond there where the four kings named  Ptolemy,  Antigonos,  Magas  andAlexander  rule, likewise in the south among the  Cholas, the  Pandyas, and as far as  Tamraparni  (Sri Lanka). —Edicts of Ashoka,  Rock Edict  13 (S. Dhammika)Ashoka also claims that he encouraged the development of  herbal medicine, for human and nonhuman animals, in their territories: Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King P iyadasi's [Ashoka's] domain, and among the people beyond the borders, the  Cholas, the  Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as  Tamraparni  and where the Greek king  Antiochos  rules, and among the kings who are neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision for two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for humans and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported and grown.Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them imported and grown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of humans and animals. —Edicts of Ashoka,  Rock Edict  2 The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as  Dharmaraksita, are described in  Pali  sources as leading Greek (Yona) Buddhist monks, active in spreading Buddhism (the  Mahavamsa, XII[2]). Death and legacy Ashoka ruled for an estimated forty years. After his death, the Mauryan dynasty lasted just fifty more years. Ashoka had many wives and children, but many of their names are lost to time.Mahindra  and  Sanghamitra  were twins born by his first wife, Devi, in the city of  Ujjain. He had entrusted to them the job of making his state religion, Buddhism, more popular across the known and the unknown world. Mahindra  and  Sanghamitra  went into  Sri Lanka  and converted the King, the Queen and their people to Buddhism. They were naturally not handling state affairs after him. In his old age, he seems to have come under the spell of his youngest wife  Tishyaraksha. It is said that she had got his son  Kunala, the regent in  Takshashila, blinded by a wily  stratagem. The official executioners spared Kunala and he became a wandering singer accompanied by his favourite wife  Kanchanmala.In  Pata liputra, Ashoka hears Kunala's song, and realizes that Kunala's misfortune may have been a punishment for some past sin of the emperor himself and condemns Tishyaraksha to death, restoring Kunala to the court. Kunala was succeeded by his son,  Samprati, but his rule did not last long after Ashoka's death. The reign of Ashoka Maurya could easily have disappeared into history as the ages passed by, and would have had he not left behind a record of his trials. The testimony of this wise king was discovered in the form of magnificently sculpted pillars and boulders with a variety of actions and teachings he wished to be published etched into the stone.What Ashoka left behind was the first written language in India since the ancient city of  Harappa. The language used for inscription was the then current spoken form called  Prakrit. In the year 185 BC, about fifty years after Ashoka's death, the last Maurya ruler,  Brhadrata, was assassinated by the commander-in-chief of the Maur yan armed forces,  Pusyamitra Sunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honor of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga founded the  Sunga dynasty(185 BC-78 BC) and ruled just a fragmented part of the Mauryan Empire. Many of the northwestern territories of the Mauryan Empire (modern-day Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan) became the  Indo-Greek Kingdom.When India gained independence from the  British Empire  it adopted Ashoka's emblem for its own, placing the  Dharmachakra  (The Wheel of Righteous Duty) that crowned his many columns on the  flag  of the newly independent state. In 1992, Ashoka was ranked #53 on  Michael H. Hart's  list of the most influential figures in history. In 2001, a semi-fictionalized portrayal of Ashoka's life was produced as a motion picture under the title  Asoka. King Ashoka, the third monarch of the Indian Mauryan dynasty, has come to be regarded as one of the most exemplary rulers in world history. The British historian H. G. Wells has written: â€Å"Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history †¦ the name of Asoka shines, and shines almost alone, a star. â€Å"

Devotion to God Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Devotion to God - Essay Example The song depicts that the God is not egocentric and with his presence, there is no ego in men. It admits that there is only one God, who is obtained by the grace of the guru. In the song, the Guru quotes, ‘what we deem a thing to be, in reality it is not like that’ (Fisher & Bailey 2012, p.81). This quote expresses that the God is ‘all-knowing’. He is omniscient and that men can think what they may and perceive things the way the can, but God has the only power that can perceive things correctly. Humans are prone to errors but God cannot make a mistake and his perception is always real. Ravi Das quotes that, ‘the lord is nearer to us than our hands and feet’ (Fisher & Bailey 2012, p.81). This confirms that the God he implies is omnipresent and his presence and manifestation is always with men whenever they are. He uses praise and submissiveness to show his devotion to God. He says the one Lord has assumed many forms but enjoys within all hearts. This figurative expression and style devotes to the Lord that he is omnipotent and omnipresent that he can assume be anything and still experience the hearts of every man. The relationship between the devotee and the God in the context of the saint song is close. He had even quoted that the presence of the lord was in a close proximity to a man than hands and feet. The devotee, Ravi Das is less resourceful as his caste class demands and being in the position to interact with the ‘Lord of wealth’ insinuates the close and non-discriminative relationship he had with the Lord.

What an Intellectual property is Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

What an Intellectual property is - Essay Example The intention of this study is intellectual property (IP) that connotes to the conceptions of the mind; which includes names, symbols, artistic and literary works, inventions and images employed by the business community to distinguish their products or creation from others in the market. Intellectual property can be divided into two divisions. Industrial property means patents for industrial designs, inventions, trademarks and geographical indications. Copyright engrosses literary creations like plays, poems, novels, films, musical works, and artistic works like photographs, paintings and drawings, architectural designs and sculptures. Like any other property, intellectual property rights (IPR) are enforceable under the law, and they permit the author or an owner of a trademark, copyright or patent holder to derive advantage from his own investment, creation or work. These privileges are stated in Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which states that the privile ge to derive advantage from the safeguarding of material and moral interests emanating from authorship of any literary , scientific or artistic work. The significance of intellectual property was first acknowledged in the† Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property in 1883† and in the â€Å"Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic works in 1886.† Both the above- mentioned treaties are being managed by the WIPO. The privileges offered under intellectual property are considered as a powerful mechanism for cultural, social well-being and for economic development of the society in general. It is aiming to strike a balance between the public’s interest and the interests of the innovator. IP rights reward human endeavour and creativity, which stimulate the advancement of the mankind. Without copyright protection, the existence of the multi -billion -dollar industry, of film making, software development, publishing industry whic h offers pleasure to billions of people around the world would not be possible. Without any reliable, global trademark protection and implementation, consumers around the world have no means to purchase services or products confidently, and strict enforcement mechanisms under IP regime help to discourage piracy and counterfeiting. Inventors and researchers around the world would have little encouragement to prolong producing more efficient and better products for consumers around the world without the rewards offered by the patent system. (WIPO 2003:3). Safeguarding the development of ideas and the creation of ideas is the prime aim of the intellectual property law. New ideas are necessary to stimulate to enhance and to stimulate the creation, development and spreading of ideas, which are essential for the economic progress. Misuse can be stopped by barring the value of an idea being stolen by others. Ideas may vary in nature from material property and hence, they are more susceptib le to imitation. Without any safeguard or protection, ideas are vulnerable to be stolen by business rivals no sooner a product becomes

Human resource management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Human resource management - Essay Example As such, delving deep into aspects which link reward and motivation with enhanced employee and organizational performance is of prime importance in contemporary business practice. Rewards defined Armstrong (2009) asserts that rewards emanate as a constituent of strategic human resource management which subsequently form the basis for competitive strategy. Employees are appreciated and rewarded for their creativity, innovations and commitment. This fosters a sense of satisfaction, motivation and consistency in work. It ultimately establishes link with quality management proposition of the organization and leads to enhanced performance, better customer service and greater value for money. Total reward strategy Earlier, rewards constituted only financial aspects of pay, share ownership and tangible benefits. However, with increased prevalence of intangibles in the employee satisfaction criteria, incorporating retention strategy within human resources strategy and developing employer-emp loyee relation on informal lines, total reward strategy now includes learning, career planning and development, cooperative environment and quality of work as cornerstones to better employee performance and commitment (Figure 1). Figure 1: Total Reward Components Performance management theories and models are replete of mention and contribution of rewards as means of giving due credit to employees for their contribution and efforts and develop the trust and cooperation factors by nurturing a high performance work system in place. Jiang et al. (2009) summarize the theoretical basis behind rewards linked to higher motivation and consequently high performance. Taking examples of motivational theories propounded by eminent researchers like Maslow, Herzberg and Adam’s, the author has anchored the fact that total rewards strategy serves two major purposes- with the help of extrinsic rewards; basic amenities requirements of workers are fulfilled which suffices the monetary and futur e security needs of people. With the help of intrinsic rewards in terms of learning and positive workplace, individual growth is encouraged which satisfies the career development, recognition, status, leadership and work-life balance criteria of employee retention. As a result, squarely growth and improved performance is achieved in terms of satisfied internal (employees) and external customers and higher productivity from all the resources used by organization. Case of Holiday Limited Company The development of reward system at Holiday Limited Company (HLC) highlights the urgency to introduce rewards strategy as a means to retain and develop talents within the organization and bridge gaps between expected and perceived service quality for customers. HLC, being a service intensive company was in greater need to implement rewards strategy and reap its benefits in terms of improved performance through increased motivational level (Analoui 2007:246). However, the implementation and con ceptualization of rewards strategy at HLC suffers from certain limitations and flaws (Refer to Appendix 1 for complete facts of the

To what ExtenT do 'Reverse Burdens' Whittle down the Rule in Essay

To what ExtenT do 'Reverse Burdens' Whittle down the Rule in Woolmington v DPP - Essay Example This paper demonstrates how reverse burdens have whittled down the presumption of innocence and how reverse burdens are justified in appropriate cases. I. The Presumption of Innocence All persons accused of a criminal offence are presumed innocent. The presumption of innocence is codified by Article 6(2) of the ECHR. Article 6(2) which is prefaced by a right to fair trial within a reasonable time,4 provides for the presumption of innocence until guild is proven â€Å"according to law†.5By virtue of the Human Rights Act 1998, the ECHR is a part of the British law and all national statutes must be read and interpreted in such a way as to be compatible with the ECHR.6 The presumption of innocence means that the prosecution must prove the essential elements of the alleged offence. As Blackstone’s Criminal Practice notes: The phrase ‘the presumption of innocence’ is often used as a convenient abbreviation of the common-law rule that, generally speaking, the pros ecution bears the burden of proving all the elements in the offence necessary to establish guilt.7 Specifically, the prosecution must prove that the defendant committed the act constituting the offense (actus reus) and had the â€Å"requisite state of mind† (mens rea).8 The common law rule was stated by Lord Sankey in Woolmington v DPP. In the case, the defendant was convicted of murdering his wife as a result of shooting. The defendant argued that the gun was discharged accidentally. The trial judge ruled that the defendant bore the burden of proving that he lacked the necessary mens rea. Upon appeal, the House of Lords, allowing the appeal ruled that in criminal trials, the common law rule was that the burden of proof showing guilt beyond a reasonable doubt resided with the prosecution.9 Therefore the presumption of innocence is not lost until such time as the prosecution discharges the burden of proof beyond a reasonable. This is a primary requisite for a fair trial pursua nt to Article 6 of the ECHR.10 It was held in McIntosh v Lord Advocate11 that a difficult paradox is created by the presumption of innocence and the public’s interest in ensuring that the guilty are convicte

Concepts and Case Analysis in the Commercial Law of Contracts Research Paper

Concepts and Case Analysis in the Commercial Law of Contracts - Research Paper Example Dotty has a right for the goods bought together with the premise and may sue to specific performance. It allows the buyer to sue for specific performance when the goods are specific. The remedy is discretionary and will only be granted if the goods are of special value or unique in their nature like the antique furniture. Dotty can also sue the vendors against trespass on the goods. An action for trespass to goods lies where there is wrongful interference with another person's goods, which are in his possession. The interference includes actual taking off or a direct and immediate injury to the goods. This tort aims at protecting personal property. For an action to be enforceable as a trespass on goods, the plaintiff must establish that at the time of trespass, he had the possession of the goods either actual or constructive and that his possession had been wrongly interfered with or disturbed. For this case, it was a trespass on chattels or goods. This is based on possession. The tort consists of interference with the goods, which are in the actual or constructive possession of the plaintiff. We need to determine whether the seating and hair dryers are fitting to the land and also consider whether it has been fixed with the intention that it will remain in position permanently or for an indefinite or substantial period, or whether temporary purpose. If they prove to have been fixed merely for a temporary purpose, it is obviously not a fixture Land includes things affixed to the land such as buildings and fences, and so on. A fixture is an object that was affixed to land with the intention of becoming a permanent feature of that land.  

Sociology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Sociology - Essay Example This theory gave birth to the ever so famous ‘American Time’. Children are rewarded for following schedules, directions, meeting deadline and obeying the authority. (Daniels, Lauder & Porter, 2009, p 89) These core values have been considered as the latent or hidden roles of education that reflect the characteristics that sustain the political and economic systems the fuel stimulated education. Conflict theory has the same view on the functions of education as functional theory. It also agrees with the other theory that educational system practices categorization, although it disagrees with how categorization is ratified. This theory sees education as a tool in preserving social inequality and maintaining the power of those who are at the top of the social ladder. Conflict theorists’ view on the education system is it perpetuates the upper classes by making the lower classes as good followers. As property taxes fund most schools, better schools can be found in aff luent districts. Students who go to these schools are mainly white and can afford to pay higher tuition than those from underprivileged districts. (Daniels, Lauder & Porter, 2009, p 116) This perpetuating cycle of socio-demographic variable – the wealthy remains wealthy and the poor stays poor – is what conflict theorists believe in. Reference Daniels, H., Lauder, H., & Porter, J.

Cultural Determinants of Terrorism Essay Example for Free

Cultural Determinants of Terrorism Essay Orchestrated objectives within well-organized terrorist groups suggest that principles of organizational psychology apply to terrorist organizations, under the cultural influence of each one (Borum, 2004). There is much cause for optimism in understanding terrorist organizations, for as Alder and Gunderson (2008) write, â€Å"Luckily, we have learned that global complexity is neither unpredictable nor random† (p. v). The call for research has never been more pressing. Introduction â€Å"Terrorism is an elusive subject, evading precise political, jurisprudential, and cultural definition† (Oliveri, 2008, p. 49). It depends upon the definition of ‘terrorism’. â€Å"With over 100 definitions, this is not an easy task; there is no common understanding of what constitutes ‘terrorism’; no clear and universally acknowledged definition actually exists† (Franks, 2007, p. 2). The definition Munger (2006) proposes that is used for this paper is, â€Å"Culture is defined as the set of ‘inherited’ beliefs, attitudes, and moral strictures that a people use to distinguish outsiders, to understand themselves and to communicate with each other† (p. 131). The distinguishing characteristic of ‘them’ and ‘us’ is perhaps the fundamental belief generated within cultures that makes terrorism towards others possible. Whether viewed in terms of extremist Muslim culture or right-wing American culture, cultural identity supports the conflict of ideologies. Ward (2008) says, â€Å"Terrorism has taken the academic world by storm† (p. 248). The Psychology of Terrorism only became a legitimate academic study in 1982; â€Å"terrorism is far from a new phenomenon, traceable to the French Revolution and the Nihilists of 19th Century Russia† (Franks, 2007, p. ). Undoubtedly, it goes much further into the annals of history than the 19th Century, â€Å"the concept of terrorism had no meaning in history until the modern era† (Bratkowski, 2005, p. 764). Prior to modernity, terrorism was so much a part of daily culture it was normal behavior, without a specific word for it. In fact, for most of Christendom, â €Å"humankind has always provided a justification for killing and instilling terror in fellow humans† (p. 764). It is only recently that most cultures have placed a label of immorality on selective murder to achieve political or cultural ends. Our species has a protracted history and prehistory of terrorism. One might wonder why terrorism has â€Å"taken the academic world by storm†. Insights from Psychology â€Å"Terrorist violence most often is deliberate (not impulsive), strategic, and instrumental; it is linked to and justified by ideological (e. g. , political, religious) objectives and usually involves a group or multiple actors/supporters (Borum, 2004, p. 17). Since terrorist objectives originate within multinational organizations, principles of organizational psychology apply to all terrorist organizations, under the cultural milieu of the organization in question. What is now certain is that terrorism is not a psychopathological aberration, as was originally thought in psychoanalytical circles (Crenshaw, 1992). Terrorist organizations are composed of clear-headed individuals, often with advanced university degrees. Merari (1991) collected empirical data on suicide bombers, and found that psychopathology is almost never a factor in a terrorist’s profile. In fact, â€Å"prevalence of mental illness among samples of incarcerated terrorists is as low as or lower than in the general population† (Borum, 2004, p. 34). This is a clear indicator that we are dealing with psychologies of organization, and not groups of crazed sociopaths. Survival of the organization, a tenet of organizational psychology, has clear implications for the terrorist mindset (Post, 1989), even though â€Å"research on the psychology of terrorism largely lacks substance and rigor. While cultural factors are important, much study remains. â€Å"Future research should be operationally-informed; maintain a behavior based focus; and derive interpretations from analyses of incident-related behaviors† (Borum, 2004, p. 3). The main problem with such a venture might be that terrorists are not giving interviews or taking surveys. Borum points out that â€Å"there is a broad spectrum of terrorist groups and organizations, each of which has a different psychology, motivation and decision making structure† (p. 5). This further underscores the need to be on guard against the ‘stereotypical terrorist organization’: there is none. In a terrorist organization, â€Å"two key narcissistic dynamics are a grandiose sense of self and ‘idealized parental imago’. If one can’t be perfect, at least one can be in a relationship with something perfect† (Borum, 2004, p. 9). Association with a world figure such as Bin Laden satisfies this need; this can lead us back to US culture: promulgation and amplifying worldwide terrorism, via the news media. Bin Laden often makes the evening news, and every time he does, his ‘world stature’ is elevated, especially in the min ds of his followers. It the name Bin Laden was unknown, how much less effective would al-Qaeda become? Media has some degree of culpability, if not complicity in promulgating terrorism worldwide by providing free publicity to organizations and their cause. According to Paul Marsden (CPM, 2001, p. 1), â€Å"the amount of media coverage devoted to these events, by television networks and newspapers, correlates positively with the rise in subsequent `copycat events. This is darkly consistent with the substantial body of evidence for suicide contagion the idea that suicides beget suicide. † If distraught teenagers copy Columbine style shootings, how much more are suicide attacks from terrorist cells encouraged by watching the evening news? Unintentionally but effectively eulogizing angry teens and terrorists alike hold moral implications for the major news media, which need addressing by society. Organizational Psychology provides some insight: if a culture perceives it is losing its ability to contribute its share to the world stage, conflict will result (Rahim, 1986; Katz ; Kahn, 1978). Considering that entire cultures may feel they are losing their ability to contribute because of intervention of external cultures upon their own culture is likely one requisite to the creation of worldwide terror organization formation. Cultural factors of extremist Muslim society While many in the West view extremist Muslim terrorism as irrational behavior by deranged individuals, â€Å"it is perfectly possible to understand terrorism as a rational decision problem, if we accept the premise that culture matters† (Munger, 2006, p. 132). â€Å"Islamic societies, not exclusively, but perhaps to a greater extent than most other nations, are committed to an idea of the perfectibility of humans in societies, through moral education and imposition and enforcement of moral law (Sharia) based on the Quran† (p. 142). This religious adherence adds a great deal of resistance to compromise from outside cultures, and bolsters the extremist elements within Islamic society. Much of the cultural foundation of extremist Muslim culture is their unique interpretation of the Quran: â€Å"The contemporary terrorist mentality and culture, which are rooted in absolutist, either-or, good-and-evil world views, resist efforts to negotiate. Accommodation, bargaining, and mutually acceptable compromise are not envisioned as possibilities within many terrorists’ mental framework† (Smelser ; Mitchell, 2002, p. 1). It appears that once a terrorist organization is established, the only ways to eliminate it is either when they accomplish their objectives, to destroy them, or to take away their reason to exist, which will allow Skinnerian extinction to follow over time. The ‘destroy’ method is problematic and costly: how does one destroy an ideology? Islamic terrorists are well-connected using technology; their geographic locality is literally everywhere and nowhere. Culturally-attuned uses of information technology† are a major source of cross-cultural influences in the creation and sustaining of terrorist organizations (Bailey ; Grimaila, 2006, p. 534). Terrorist organizations are expert in spreading and sustaining their ideology around the world. Once indoctrinated into a group, people will generally follow orders, no matter how extreme or violent, as long as the individual perceives that the order was issued from the appropriate authority (Milgram, 1965). Cultural influences caused normal students at Stanford to transform into ‘merciless prison guards’; once given the role and the authority, al-Qaeda recruits mold easily to orders from Bin Laden. Not only do they have a physical authority, which relieves their individual conscience from objecting, but also they further believe that Allah Himself sanctions Bin Laden and themselves in their efforts to establish Sharia law throughout the world (Bailey ; Grimaila, 2006). There is substantial agreement that the psychology of terrorism cannot be considered apart from political, historical, familial, group dynamic, organic, and even purely accidental, coincidental factors† (Borum, 2004, p. 22). Borum also states, â€Å"Significant differences [exist] both in, 1) the nature and level of aggression in different cultures, and 2) aggression can be environmentally manipulated; both findings that argue against a universal human instinct [of violence]† (p. 12). Diamond (20 04) argues that environmental influences are paramount in understanding why cultures are the way they are. The Fertile Crescent, once the cornerstone of agriculture, became radically altered once all the forests were clear-cut, leaving mostly a barren desert environment. It is interesting to note that the foundation cultures which harbored the seeds of al-Qaeda all come from this former environmental paradise. Therefore, while culture probably has the most influence on the creation of terrorist organizations in the short term today, environment certainly has a large degree of impact over the long term, and might have a large impact in the short term via militaristic or political manipulation. For many critics, global or ‘hyper’ terrorism has become an ultimate expression of acutely depressed geopolitical chaos† (Ward, 2008, p. 252). Geopolitical chaos produces environments ripe with opportunity for recruiters toward the cause of terrorism. Without addressing and rectifying the chaotic areas of the world, it is highly doubtful, that global terrorism will end. Cultures th at feel oppressed or depraved on the world stage may rise in rebellion against the oppressing culture(s), with or without religious dictate. Muslim culture is producing the lion’s share of high-visibility terrorists in the world today (Borum, 2004). One way to understand Muslim culture as it relates to the creation of terrorism is to look at Hofstede’s dimensions. Generally, Islamic countries have large inequalities of status, forming a small ruling group, and a large ruled group with limited power. Hofstede (2001) shows, those Arab cultures have large Power Distance (PDI) (80) and Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) (68). When these two Dimensions are combined, it creates a situation where leaders have virtually ultimate power and authority. It is not unusual for new leadership to arise from armed insurrection – the ultimate power, rather than from diplomatic or democratic change† (Borum, 2004, p. 44). Virtually the only method available for the downtrodden in Arab society to express their need for change is by armed insurrection. This is a valuable insight into the cultural creation of Arab-based terr orism, possibly the most important one. Naturally, from the ‘terrorists’ point of view they are not terrorists at all but â€Å"freedom fighters†, fighting with their only available means to enact positive change. Does this mean efforts at establishing democracy in Muslim states are likely to fail? Cultural roots run deep, and are resistant to change by outside cultures (Weiten, 2004), so the question of democracy introduced and established by Westerners is a highly speculative venture. Finally, take the case of a female suicide bomber. It was originally assumed that the young woman who committed this act was â€Å"innocent, ignorant, and of questionable morality† (Brunner, 2007, p. 961). It is difficult for Westerners to imagine otherwise. Subsequent interviews revealed that she was educated, showed no signs of emotional disturbance, and was â€Å"as highly intelligent and more independent than other girls in her society, but still fully within the range of normal† (p. 961). The key point is that she was â€Å"fully within the range of normal†, according to the culture that she grew up within. By not understanding her culture, Western culture had labeled her â€Å"innocent, ignorant, and immoral†, overlooking key factors with which to fully understand why a mentally stable young woman would commit such an act, and more importantly, to be able to deal realistically with the rise of extremist terrorism through a lack of cultural understanding. Cultural factors of the United States There is a cultural precedence of powerful nations to label other nations as ‘evil’: a threat to ‘civilization’ (Ivie, 2005). In the U. S. , â€Å"this is a very old cultural theme, deeply ingrained into the political psyche† (p. 56). This cross-cultural mindset of powerful nations is one part in the creation of terrorists in weaker cultures, a type of self-fulfilling prophecy: the call to destroy the ‘barbarians that threaten democracy’ is an ancient one; Greece and Rome had similar ongoing open-ended campaigns against terrorists, as does the U. S. today (p. 55). The main trouble with an open-ended campaign is that it never ends†¦ another cultural perception that needs adjustment on the world stage in order to arrive at peace in the world. Looking at the cultural history of the US, the ‘savage’ has always been the object of distain and genocide, in order to ‘make way for civilization’ (Ivie, 2005). The genocide of indigenous peoples of the North American continent is well documented, even using biological terrorist tactics of germ warfare; giving ‘gifts’ of small-pox laden blankets to Indians without acquired immunity against devastating disease (Diamond, 1997). Oliverio (2008) writes, â€Å"It was also a matter of common sense that the Aryan race was superior. This taken-for-granted reality of Aryan superiority led to the extermination of millions of American Indians, millions of African slaves bound for America, and countless indigenous cultures throughout the world† (p. 21). Powerful cultures that label weaker cultures as savages are a powerful impetus to the creation of terrorism. It is a recent habit of the American Right to wage war against abstractions (Comaroff, 2007, p. 381). The line between metaphorical and real war, blurred beyond recognition, gives rise to such cultural terms as ‘the war against drugs’, ‘the war against poverty’, ‘the war against illegal immigration’ (Sherry, 1995), and has become the standard of cultural mind-set in America today. Again, the US has a â€Å"militarized world-view extended to declaring metaphorical wars on disease, crime, engaging in ‘trade wars’ with foreign competitors, and fighting ‘culture wars’ with one another† (p. 58). â€Å"Culture wars† is the main point in question: how can peace ever prevail if acts of war against culture prevail? Even the Olympic Games that followed 9/11 became a forum for the core Bush Doctrine (Falcous ; Silk, 2005). How does the reduction of civil liberties fare with the response to terrorism? Not allowing college professors to speak out against governmental policies associated with the war on terror (Crowson ; DeBacker, 2008, p. 296) is one form of right-wing authoritarianism that many Americans think needs implementation. A disturbing trend of loss of personal freedoms that some associate with fascism. Taken as a whole, US domestic and foreign policy regarding oil consumption, and support for oppressive regimes, is set aside in deference to critical scrutiny of individual behavior and the forms of ‘moral lassitude’ associated with a culture of dependency† (Hay ; Andrejevic, 2006, p. 344). So at least part of the U. S. cultural mindset is about securing its own economic interests at the expense of decency and fairness on the world stage. Many people think that the U. S. would never have bothered with Iraq if they had no strategic oil supplies, especially in the Middle East and Europe. This belief can only inflame world tensions further. Understanding cross-cultural inter-dependencies A surprising interdependency, regards the Bush Administration itself. According to Kellner (2004), not only Jihadists are responsible for ‘spectacular acts of terror’, but also both Bush administrations. They deployed â€Å"Manichean discourses of good and evil which themselves fit into dominant media codes of popular culture; that both deploy fundamentalist and absolutist discourses† (p. 41). This is extremely similar to the â€Å"contemporary terrorist mentality and culture, which are rooted in absolutist, either-or, good-and-evil world views, resist efforts to negotiate† (Smelser ; Mitchell, 2002, p. 1). The Bush administration openly declares its refusal to communicate with terrorist organizations or states, which is absolutist. We know that incentives flourish within such organizations (Munger, 2006). Incentives usually take two forms: 1) recruit members that are prone to obey and please within a cultural setting (e. g. collectivist rather than individualist cultures), and 2) â€Å"Create a set of incentives that reward loyalty, by giving access to excludable near-public (â€Å"club†) goods† (p. 131). Mohammed Atta reportedly was â€Å"at a strip club spending a lot of money, shouting anti-American slogans, and left a copy of the Quran before he left† (USA TODAY, 2001, p. 1). This incident seems to have fallen under ‘club goods’ instead of operational funds, because it was the night before the hijackings, and such excessive cash was no longer needed. This says nothing of the influence U. S. culture had on Atta, a devout Muslim going to a strip club, one day before he â€Å"meets Allah†. There is no such thing as a ‘terrorist state’, in the absolute sense. Triandis, Bontempo, Villareal, Asai, and Lucca (1988) have shown that national cultures never equate to individual or subgroup cultures, so while a totalitarian governing body may indeed be a terrorist organization, the general populace can in no way be held accountable for the actions of a few. It is a stereotypical mistake to label an entire country as terrorist. It is important to realize that â€Å"both differences and similarities in behavior occur across and within cultures; psychological processes are characterized by both cultural variance and invariance† (Weiten, 2006, p24). Regrettably, â€Å"quite a few nations are culturally reasonably homogeneous† (Hofstede, 1998, p180), and this may mean that a few nations may be mostly extremist in their outlook. Discourses from the Bush administrations paralleled closely to speeches given by Hitler, Pope Urban II, and others: â€Å"an appeal to a legitimate power source external to the speaker; an appeal to the importance of the national culture under attack; the construction of an evil enemy; and an appeal for unification† (Graham, Keenan, ; Dowd, 2004, p. 213). Kellner (2004) feels that â€Å"the disparity between the vast amount of information freely available to all through multimedia sources, and the narrow vision presented on the major news media via television is a travesty†, and a major cultural factor responsible for the deployments of the Bush administrations’ controlled mass media (p. 61). While arguments that ‘freely available news sources from uncontrolled sources’ might suggest this no longer to be a cultural factor, culture by nature takes time to change, and most Americans probably place more credence in the evening news than the newer Internet sources (Kellner, 2003). Another example of how cross-cultural misunderstandings regularly occur between nations: â€Å"when one cultural message sender transmits information to another culture, chances of accurate transmission are reduced† (Alder ; Gunderson, 2008, p. 72), and when nations or organizations refuse to send information between cultures as both the Bush administration and the al-Qaeda organization currently do, virtually no chance of accurate transmission occurs. Stalemate results and wars go on, indefinitely; clear contributors to terrorism. Perhaps nowhere is the question of terrorism more complex than in the European Union: â€Å"European counterterrorism culture is a difficult concept due to the fact that the regional level of analysis encapsulates a range of different national cultures. Europe has always been a rich mixture of various cultures, and ‘terrorism’ is a culturally charged term† (Rees, 2007, p. 220), hence the difficulty in consensus. Conversely, in China, we could expect to find a unified definition of terrorism under the centralized government (Diamond, 1997). While China is suspect of â€Å"using the post-9/11 discourse of counterterrorism to cloak their own domestic priorities† (Rees, 2007, p. 224), most of their counterterrorism efforts are likely to gain support with the Chinese public as being in the accord of the countries best interest: China being a collectivistic nation. â€Å"Terrorists focus their recruitment where sentiments about perceived deprivation are deepest and most pervasive† (Borum, 2004). This helps us to understand why American involvement in Iraq actually helps create recruitment opportunities for al-Qaeda. Destroyed economies, infrastructure, and family support (via killed family members), create extreme deprivation, desperation to right cultural wrongs, and enrage cultural dictates for retribution (Borum, 2004). It even gives insight into where al-Qaeda might be concentrating recruitment efforts in America. For youth torn between two cultures in a foreign land, identity crisis may result from exposure to the foreign culture, and the chiasm between their parent’s cultures: â€Å"radicalism offers simple answers to the big questions they are grappling with† (Ongering, 2007, p. ). The human tendency to stereotype will easily adapt to simple answers rather than grapple with difficult questions (Weiten, 2004). Extrapolated, it may be easier to recruit a terrorist, than to prevent a person from taking up the cause in the first place. Does cultural pressure on a subgroup help to create violent extremists? Muslim communities in America, â€Å"Not only had their religion being p resented incorrectly, but its adherents were being equated with terrorists† (Baker, 2006, p. 302). Considering the degree that Muslim communities in the Western world are subject to intensified scrutiny, and even unwarranted acts of violence against them by US citizenry (Ward, 2008), a good assumption is that many young Muslims will adapt an extremist ideology in response to cultural threat (Sirin ; Fine, 2007), and some of those extremists will turn terrorist. It seems to be a never-ending spiral escalation of one cultural assault upon the other: the ‘Crusades’ continue†¦ It is a real ‘Which came first, the chicken or the egg? ’ question. Which side began this milieu of cultural attack and counterattack? Perceptions run the gamut: â€Å"The terrorist presents a story of heroism and necessary sacrifice. The counter-terrorist presents a counter-narrative of defiance and vengeance, replacing the image of the martyr with that of inhumanity, even bestiality† (Ward, 2008, p. 254). We reminded again of weaker cultures as ‘savage’, and as we have come to see, cross-culturally, nothing could be further from the truth from both extreme perspectives. Another cultural misunderstanding that may have helped to escalate tensions is the perception that the Muslim community in America did not stand up in unison and denounce the acts of 9/11 as atrocious. This initial silent response interpreted by many Americans as tantamount to condoning such acts of terrorism (Munro, 2006). Paradoxically, this lack of public outcry may have been the result of Muslim culture itself, with the majority of Muslims feeling that it was obvious that they had nothing to do with the attacks, and therefore no reason to take a public stand (Munro, 2006). A form of ‘vigilante counter-terrorism’ develops in American culture, which gives rise to anti-Muslim sentiment and acts of violence (Johnson, 2003). One probable contributing factor is termed: â€Å"Sudden Jihad Syndrome† (Pipes, 2006). The perpetrator, â€Å"for all outward appearances, a young Muslim man, well adjusted to Western society, considered friendly; one day, without warning, he acted out an independent Jihad, which injured nine students† (Pipes, 2006). Such unforeseeable and unpredictable behavior influences non-Muslims to stereotype many Muslims as having the same potential toward â€Å"Sudden Jihad Syndrome†. This of course creates an atmosphere of suspicion and mistrust between cultures: how can you tell who the enemy is just by looking at them? Discussion There is no cultural ‘quick fix’ to this pervasive problem confronting the modern world. â€Å"The general policy approach has to be adaptive, opportunistic, and multisided. The conventional problem-solving logic so attractive in American culture—find a problem and then fix it—is of limited utility, and a longer term, more contextualized approach is necessary† (Smelser et al. , 2002, p. 4). For instance, the Global War on Terror (GWOT) as espoused by the Bush Doctrine includes toppling ‘rogue nations’ as part of the effort to thwart terrorism (Borum, 2004). Focusing on ‘nation rebuilding’ of states, that are otherwise subject to deterrent, rather than on organizations that transcend geographic localities and are not subject to deterrent, is a lack of proper cultural understanding of the issues, and will lead to further cultural misunderstandings. It makes sense that if powerful cultures do not make accusations against weaker cultures not understood, or interfere in the sovereign rights of weaker nations, that a large amount of terrorism will fail to manifest by lack of unwanted cultural impetus from foreign powers. One of the biggest troubles seems to be, that powerful countries can arouse their masses which are â€Å"easily pressed into service to rally the nation, quell dissent and effectively inoculate the public against any alternative perspective† (Ivie, 2005, p. 56), the main point being to limit any alternative cultural perspectives as being legitimate relative to one’s own ‘superior’ cultural perspective. This is error. â€Å"An increasingly militarized culture of fear† (p. 9), such as is dominant in the US today, and which has been developing over many decades, cannot reduce the threat of terrorism in the world. Indeed, Muslim culture dictates that retribution be demanded when a family member is taken. Each errant US bomb inevitably creates more ‘terrorists’ (Borum, 2004), cultural ‘deviants’ are created that never would have existed otherwise. Rumors and hundreds of websites have sprung up claiming that FEMA has erected hundr eds of internment camps on American soil is a disturbing part of the changing culture in America today. A Google search of ‘American internment camps’ will pull up hundreds of unsubstantiated claims of such camps, including specific locations; further highlighting the cultural atmosphere of increasing paranoia. Finally, what can help prevent Muslim youth in the U. S. from taking a violent path? According to Sirin and Fine (2007)â€Å"Research that the successful integration of both one’s own culture and the dominant culture, leads to more positive developmental outcomes†¦whereas marginalization, that is disengagement from both cultures, is associated with mental health problems for immigrant youth† (p. 52). Society certainly would do well to address issues of marginalization, in order to help prevent future â€Å"Sudden Jihad Syndrome† (Pipes, 2006). Conclusion While this paper has focused mainly on US and Muslim extremist involvement, state and non-state respectively, it is important to remember that many other states and organizations exist whic h perpetrate terror. Terror is a two way street, with few exceptions. Perhaps the ultimate defense against terrorism is to understand the cultural and cross-cultural causes of it, and with proper knowledge, address the issues at hand. We must avoid stereotypes at all costs, because â€Å"Nearly all terrorists are extremists, but most extremists are not terrorists† (Borum, 2004). â€Å"Long-term orientation versus short-term orientation† (Franke, Hofstede, ; Bond, 1991) may provide insights into which culture holds greater strength in the GWOT. U. S. culture demands immediate results, and has little tolerance for long term strategies, while extremist Islamic culture is bond by the vision of Mohammed, and is prepared to sacrifice for centuries if need be (Borum, 2004). Fortunately, unnecessary warring between cultures may diminish substantially as one of the biggest single benefits of cross-cultural understanding and application of organizational psychological research (Brislan, 1983). â€Å"It is argued that we now live in an age of ‘hyperterrorism,’ where the nature and scale of terrorism has reached a new level, and that the question of ‘How to deal with international terrorism is quickly becoming the defining issue of our age’† (Ward, 2008, p. 248). It is imperative that we make every effort to understand the cross-cultural determinants of terrorism, regardless of cost. Additionally, â€Å"terrorism is a discourse that affects all our lives, and the collateral argument that terrorism somehow validates the occasional abrogation of so many of our most cherished legal principles, is something that should concern all of us† (p. 249). Hogan (2006) offers: â€Å"Due to the logistical and analytical challenges of cross-national comparisons, studies to date have concentrated largely on single nations† (p. 64). While much work remains, understanding the vast scope of cultural interdependencies that help create terrorism is an extremely complex task yet must be undertaken if we are to come to terms with global terrorism. As Hostede (1998) states, â€Å"constructs are products of the mind with which we attempt to understand and predict human behavior in an infinitely complex world†, and all constructs are flawed to some degree. In an infinitely complex world, we will never entirely eradicate terrorism in its many manifestations. Our best hope to eradicate the bulk of organized terrorism is through scientific understanding and conscientious application of rational solutions, freed from cultural bias. â€Å"Culture lies entirely on the â€Å"nurture† side of the ledger, as against â€Å"nature†, or truly nherited traits† (Munger, 2006, p. 134). Solutions to the specter of terrorism will manifest through understanding and responding to such cultural nurture. This paper has posited that understanding other cultures can help to reduce tensions between cultures, which give rise to terrorism and counterterrorism conflicts. As Munger (2006) points out, â€Å"a shared understanding of something that identifies insiders, and excludes outsiders because they do not share this understanding† (p. 133), is perhaps the fundamental commonality between conflicting sides. If we can short-circuit this exclusionary identity concept, by education and promulgate understanding by either, or both sides, and act upon it with responsible communication between parties, then perhaps modern terrorism as we know it will eventually end. It may take many years, because established terrorist organizations are not open to compromise (Smelser ; Mitchell, 2002), but such efforts may play a large part in helping to prevent future recruitment, and help eliminate the need for terrorist organizations within the cultures that originally spawned them; losing their luster they slowly fade from existence.

Financial and non-financial implications of Winston Barkwiths proposal Essay Example for Free

Financial and non-financial implications of Winston Barkwiths proposal Essay Introduction: For my analysis I simplified normative investment process model (original source: Pike and Dobbins, 1986), which I would like to use to determine the future viability of the project plan put forward by Winston. The basic idea which underlies the model is that the process of capital investment can be considered to flow from strategic planning through to search for investment opportunities to meet that plan. The opportunities are screened and defined for the subsequent analysis by management. If the project is sanctioned then the investment is made, making sure that there are no cost overruns. Once a project has been commissioned and running for a time it is useful to assess whether it is meeting the expectation promised at the evaluation stage. Audit technique can be used at latter stages to ensure appropriate control. In order to evaluate Winstons proposal I used in depth qualitative cost-benefit analysis and also numerical techniques, such as cash flow forecast and payback (see Appendix 1). Main body of the report: 1) Strategic plan. Strategic plan of the North West Trust for the Protection of Wildlife is very well reflected in the aims of that organisation, which state the following: h to encourage farming practices in the region which will not endanger local animal life; h to enable the regions residents to enjoy the local countryside; h to educate the regions young people on how to look after and enjoy the local countryside and wildlife. 2) Search, Screen and definition of investment opportunities. There are two projects put forward before the committee. One of which is the proposal made by the newly elected chairman of the committee, which involves reorganising Moult Hall property into quad biking course. On the other hand, there is a proposal made by Jonathan and Ingrid, who are senior members of the committee. Their idea is to restructure Moult Hall. This would allow young and disadvantaged members of society access to the property. 3) Evaluation of investment opportunities. In this section of my work I would like to concentrate on the cost-benefit analysis of Winston Barkwith project, because it is one which is most contradictory to organizational aims and raises most concern among the members of the Trusts committee. I mentioned the word contradictory because according to the opinion of many leading financists capital investment decisions should allocate resources within the organisation to offer the best potential for meeting its objectives. Benefits: As understood by me, the idea of financing profit oriented recreational facility is a relatively new one for the organisation. Therefore, the estimates of future profits and cash flows cant be made using the past experience as a guide. Consequently, form financial point of view they are going to be subjects to greater risk by being the product of forecasts and estimates. The riskier the project the more return the company is likely to require. In the case of Winstons proposal we can consider the venture as a diversification, which is usually associated with required return of at least 30%. Although no discount factors are given, the nominal figures predicting amazing cash inflow, which can be used to finance other projects. Use of money from the venture could give the organisation opportunity to help more people than they currently do. Dramatic increase in the capital inflow may  give the Trust prospect to achieve much wider objectives than its original ones, e.g. go nation-wide, create or support government lobby, international ventures, etc. There are other, mainly non-financial, advantages of the proposal as well, such as possible boost to the local economy. Organising of quad biking courses will create money inflow into the local economy, which will be magnified by the positive multiplier effect with the end result being increase in wealth for the local community. Let me demonstrate, employees and sub-contractors paid by the owners of Moult Hall are likely to be spending significant proportion of their incomes in the nearby area, which in turn means increases in revenue for the local businesses. Increase in revenue for businesses is likely to result in greater variety, create jobs and allow for more taxes to be collected by the local council, which than can be spend on such public programmes as support of elderly and disadvantaged members of the local community. Another benefit to the local economy which is likely to occur is an improvement in infrastructure. Improved infrastructure should breathe life into the local community; make Moult Halls and the Trusts facilities more accessible. By accepting Winstons project the Trust could gain invaluable City contacts. If the situation arises the Trust is likely to be in a better position to raise additional funds. Also, the customer segment the proposal is aiming for are extremely wealthy individuals, they are CEOs (Chief Executive Officer) of large corporations. By cleverly promoting itself the Trust can attract some very influential beneficiaries or even become sponsored by one of the companies. It is not an unrealistic thought, since in the UK many companies which finance charitable organisations often get tax breaks from the government. To add more weight to my arguments in favour of Winston Barkwith proposal I would like to bring forward idea which belongs to one of the leading economic thinkers of the modern era. Milton Friedman of University of  Chicago holds the view that all businesses should use the resources available to them as efficiently as possible. Friedman argues that making the highest possible profit creates maximum possible wealth to the benefit of the whole society. Costs: A good starting point would be the issue of finance. It may be difficult to find finance capital for such a risky venture. It is unlikely that the Trust will have extra four hundred thousands to spend on the project with such a degree of risk. It is a new to the organisation business, there is a high chance of failure. Few of the possible reasons can be overstated or unrealistic customer figures; it may be illegal to destroy woodlands in the area. Also, the Trust, more likely than not, will have to apply for the planning permission for the stable conversion and the petrol tank installation, etc. To continue I would like to remind that organizational aims are the long-term intentions of the organisation to develop in a certain way. Their purpose is to create a common vision which everyone in the organisation should work towards achieving. They use the language intended to motivate within the firm and to convince those outside it of the companys sincerity and commitment. By accepting Winstons proposal the Trust will be acting against its stated aims. If the Trust will decide in favour of quad biking facility it will have serious detrimental effect on the local wildlife and farming practices. It will be especially harmful for the re-introduction of red kites project, which is supported by the Trust. An organisations aims should establish which stakeholder needs will be identified and considered when strategic policy is developed. Balancing the interests of stakeholders can be extremely difficult, if the aims of some of these groups conflict. The decision to continue with Winstons proposal would undermine interests of existing stakeholders of the business, people who donated their money for the Trust to accomplish its organisational objectives. The trust is a charitable organisation. Its ethical behaviour is its unique selling point (USP). It will be really difficult to continue its fund raising activities if its existing beneficiaries will be thinking that their money invested into some profitable business ventures. On the finance side the organisation may loose more than it gains, since it is currently receiving eight hundred thousands from donations only. Bad publicity may outset revenue from the project (800k vs. 750k). The committee consists of people who look like they have strong ethical values. Introduction of unethical policy, which Winstons proposal is, can create divisions within the organisation. One can even argue that by accepting the project the committee members would act in direct contradiction to morals which motivated the founder of the Wildlife Trust Doreen Barkwith. Conclusion: To a large extent but not entirely the proposal made by Jonathan and Ingrid is a better option for the organisations long-term growth and objectives. However, the Winstons proposal no doubt is a more financially sound one. Nevertheless, one needs to remember that ethics are the moral principles that should underpin decision-making. An ethical decision means doing what is morally right; it is not a matter of scientifically calculating costs and benefits. A decision made on ethical grounds might reject the most profitable solution in favour of one of greater benefit to society as well the firm. On the other hand, we all have different world views and different interpretations of what is beneficial for society. Therefore, I would suggest a more democratic approach to the decision making or find a human solution, such as to use less noisy vehicles, go with a different proposal or even building indoor track course.

Problems with UK Glaucoma (POAG) Treatment

Problems with UK Glaucoma (POAG) Treatment CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Glaucomas are a group of diseases which have the potential of causing damage to the eye and are distinguished from other eye related diseases by the fact that they can cause an increase in intraocular pressure inside which in turn causes damage to the optic nerve and to the retina. Primary Open Angle glaucoma (POAG) is the second commonest cause of registerable blindness and partial sight registrations in the UK (Bougard et al 2000). It is particularly dangerous because of its progressive nature and ability to go unnoticed for years thereby preventing treatment of the disease until, in some cases it can be too late to rescue the vision completely. Therefore the only way to detect the disease before it becomes a serious problem is with a thorough screening program. Optometrists usually are the first in line to examine a patients ocular health and refer patients onto the hospital based on several risk factors. The prevalence of POAG increases with age. This was shown in the Framingham Eye Study which estimated prevalence to be 1.2% between 50 and 64 years, 2.3% from 65 to 74 years and 3.5% in 75 years and over (Leibowitz et al, 1980). Another study has shown that POAG is positively related to the levels of intraocular pressure. The Baltimore Eye Survey concluded that the prevalence of the disease was 1.18% in patients with IOPs less than 22mmHg and 10.32% above this IOP level (Tielsch, 1991). Hereditary links have also been associated with POAG especially African-Americans who are at higher risk of developing the condition than Caucasians and, if there is a family history of glaucoma, the risk is up to six times higher than for the general population. Also, patients who are highly myopic, have diabetes mellitus or cardiovascular problems are at high risk of developing glaucoma and so these are the individuals who need to be monitored and checked regularly. Thus, in the first instance it may seem appropriate to test all individuals who present as being at a (low) threshold risk of developing the disease at regular intervals for disease progression; however the numbers of patients who are referred for suspect chronic open angle glaucoma and then found to have no glaucoma is around 40%. These false positive referrals are thought to cause unnecessary anxiety to the patient, alongside adding to the volume of paperwork that is needed to be completed by the practitioner and also thought to be a waste of local hospital resources (Parkins, 2006). Hence, these matters alongside the increasing requirements for patient centered care and reducing the costs occurred by the NHS have led to the development of certain criteria which enables optometrists to refine their own referrals for glaucoma prior to deciding whether or not a patient should be referred. This can be made easier by carrying out simple procedures or following specific protocols, for e xample, repeating suspicious IOP measurements preferably at a different time of day by using a contact method (Perkins or Goldmann) and repeating visual field tests on a separate occasion. (Parkins, 2006). More importantly, further schemes have been introduced where referrals are directed to specially trained optometrists who then decide on whether to refer the patient to the hospital eye service (HES) or return the patient for management under primary care. This appears to have ultimately increased the role played by optometrists in diagnosing and referring patients thought to be suffering from POAG, increasing their abilities to reach and treat individuals within the community more effectively. This in turn reduces the number of cases of POAG observed within the population as individuals are able to gain access to primary or more conventional methods of health care, i.e. hospitals. By reviewing the literature which has been published regarding the treatment and management of patients with POAG by optometrists, this paper aims to look at the way new schemes and interventions will affect the treatment and management of the disease within the UK. In addition, the ability of optometrists to prescribe certain drugs and the potential benefits will be discussed. CHAPTER 2: GLAUCOMA IN THE UK. (EPIDEMIOLOGY) This chapter will focus on the distribution, occurrence and control of the disease within the UK population. Glaucoma, as described above is one of the most frequent causes of blindness, predominantly in the industrialized world and therefore accounts for a high proportion of blindness observed within the UK. (Coyle and Drummond, 1995) The disease accounts for 14% of blind registrations in the UK and many cases around the country present at an advanced symptomatic stage (Aclimandos Galloway, 1988). With the potential to cause blindness in both eyes glaucoma has a dramatic effect on the individuals who are suffering from it but it also has a severe economic burden upon the nation, including direct and indirect costs. Within the UK alone these were estimated to be  £132 million in 1990. (Zhang et al, 2001) The most frequently prescribed drug for treatment of glaucoma is timolol which is a non-selective beta-adrenergic receptor blocker. The drug is used to treat open-angle glaucoma due to its ability to reduce the aqueous humour production by blocking the beta receptors on the ciliary epithelium. However, beta-adrenergic receptors blockers are thought to have serious side effects on patients who are suffering from cardiovascular or pulmonary disorders. For this reason an additional drug, 2-4 Pilocarpine, which is a cholinergic agonist may be used. This acts on a specific type of muscarinic receptor (M3) found on the iris sphincter muscle which causes contraction of the muscle and therefore miosis. This widens the trabecular meshwork through increased pressure on the scleral spur which aids the aqueous humor to leave the eye and reduce intraocular pressure. However this drug also has its limitations which are primarily associated with the requirement for it to be administrated four times per day and its ability to cause miosis, myopia and occasionally in some patients, retinal detachment and progressive closure of the anterior chamber angle. Thus, new drugs which will be more effective and safer methods of treating open-angle glaucoma are required. There have been many agents suggested for use for the treatment of the disease, however they often fail on several counts, including their failure to control intraocular pressure. (Schwab et al, 2003) This problem is observed within the three non-beta blocker drugs: latanoprost (a prostaglandin F2à ¡ analogue), dorzolamide (a topical carbonic anhydrase inhibitor), and brimonidine (a Selective à ¡2 agonist). However, out of these three drugs, Latanoprost seems to be the most highly promising because of its comparable or, in some cases, better efficacy when compared with timolol. (Zhang et al, 2001) Risk factors, which are associated with the development of the disease, include individuals who are members of a family pedigree, which have suffered from glaucoma in the past. (OMIM, 2006) It is thought that a family history of the disease increases ones likelihood of developing the disease by 6%. This is suggestive of a genetic link or predisposing factor which may be associated with the development of the disease. Diabetes and being of African descent are also factors which are thought to increase the likelihood of developing the disease, and individuals with either of these factors, are three times more likely to develop the disease than the average individual. Asian populations have a dramatically higher risk of developing glaucoma than Caucasians, increasing their chances of disease development by a staggering twenty to forty percent. Men are also three times more likely to develop open-angle glaucoma than women due to the presence of wider anterior chambers in the eye. (Paron and Craig, 1976) Evidence is becoming increasingly available to suggest that the levels of ocular blood flow are involved within the pathogenesis of glaucoma. Fluctuations in blood flow are more harmful in those with glaucomatous optic neuropathy than those who experience a steady reduction in the blood flow to their eye through the optic nerve head. This also correlates with the damage observed to the optic nerve head and to the deterioration in the visual field acuity. (National Institute of Health, web Reference) There are also a number of studies which suggest that there is a correlation between glaucoma and systemic hypertension. This is linked with the fluctuations in blood flow mentioned above, as varying blood pressure can affect blood flow. There is however, no evidence that vitamin deficiencies play any role in the development of glaucoma. A survey carried out (Rhee et al, 2002) revealed that it is highly unlikely that vitamin supplements provide a useful treatment method for any individual suffering from the disease. CHAPTER 3: SCREENING FOR GLAUCOOMA IN THE UK. As we are now aware of the epidemiology of glaucoma within the population in the UK, it is clear that screening of individuals, particularly of those individuals at high risk of disease development is required. Many factors influence whether or not screening is considered a necessary precaution by ophthalmologists. However, it is perhaps first, most useful to provide an overview of what screening is and why it is a procedure invested in for treatment of open angle glaucoma. 3.1 Definition of screening Screening may be defined as the examination of a group of usually asymptomatic individuals to allow the early diagnosis or detection of those individuals with a high probability of having a given disease, (Collegeboard, 2008) and it is often carried out on individuals who are considered to theoretically have a high chance of inheriting or suffering from the disease, due to either genetic or environmental factors or even a combination of these issues. It is thought that screening is useful when it enables the diagnosis of a disease earlier than it would usually have been detected giving the ability to improve the patients outcome. However, there are several ethical issues surrounding screening processes as some individuals are of the opinion that it is only right to screen for some diseases when an individual is at an age to consent to such a procedure. This raises issues surrounding the onset of screening procedures, and whether siblings and offspring of individuals with a family history of open angle glaucoma should be screened for the disease because of certain opinions that suggest the patient themselves should decide whether or not to be screened. This is debatable because of the implications on the individuals life and the worry which is associated with the knowledge of perhaps developing such a disease which could eventually lead to blindness. However, due to the fact that the screening procedure gives the potential for treatment of the disease symptoms, it is likely that many ethical issues which surround some screening processes are not relevant to the screening of individuals at high risk of open angle glaucoma, particularly due to the fact that the genetic risk is minimal in comparison to the environmental risk factors and thus, genetic screening of parents and their offspring is not yet (and is unlikely to become) an issue. 3.2 Tests for glaucoma There are several tests that are used to identify those patients with glaucoma, however, there is no single test that can determine whether a patient has the disease or not. To start with a thorough eye examination is a prerequisite prior to undergoing the specific tests for glaucoma. Following this examination, the management of glaucoma involves serial tests which are carried out at regular intervals over several years allowing the practitioner to determine whether the pressure in the eye has become stable and hence further damage will be avoided. Good record keeping is vital as it is only possible to determine whether the pressure has worsened by using previous values and measurements as a comparison. The ‘Gold Standard tests for glaucoma are determination of eye pressure with an application tonometer, assessment of optic nerve head and visual field screening. In optometric practice these tests are carried out once every year under NHS regulation, however, a patient under hospital management will usually be seen at least 3 or 4 times to monitor their intraocular pressure. The established ‘Gold Standard for intraocular pressure measurement is the Goldman applanation tonometer. To carry out this procedure, the Goldman head is mounted on a slit lamp and a drop of anesthetic a dye (fluorescein) is placed in the eye. Then a gonioprism is placed in contact with the cornea through which practitioner is able to see green rings and make adjustments to arrive at the end point where the half rings overlap. The eye pressure reading (in mmHg) is recorded at this position. There are several other means of recording intraocular pressure using different types of tonometers, which include the air puff tonometer, Perkins tonometer, Pneumotonometer and Schiotz tonometer. In addition, there are tonometers, which allow the estimation of eye pressure at home. One such example is the ‘proview eye pressure monitor (Bausch and Lomb, 2001). The visual field is usually the first to be affected in glaucoma and by the time the central vision is affected, the disease is already far advanced with almost all of the vision in the periphery permanently lost (Parks, 2006). Perimetric threshold-measuring techniques are sensitive to the early progression of such glaucomatous field loss and full threshold screening programs are seen as the ‘Gold Standard. However, threshold tests can be lengthy and can induce fatigue within a patient causing them to lose fixation and overall lead to unreliable results. This lead to the development of SITA testing which reduced the testing time while maintaining the same quality of results as full threshold testing (Bengtsson, et al 1998). The computers, which are used to compute the visual field, are those such as the Humphrey or the Octopus perimeters. These machines use a light point that is presented in a predetermined fashion (location sequence) in a lighted bowl and the patient is asked to press a button when they see the light point. The patients responses are analyzed statistically and compared with a database of ‘normal responses. From this information, any deviations from normal are marked on a printout as black squares which represent visual field-defect areas. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨ Optic nerve head assessment is mandatory in all eye examinations performed and the ‘Gold Standard method is the use of a Volk lens with the patient dilated. The preliminary signs of the disease occur at the optic nerve head where nerve fibre loss is apparent. However, it only until the loss of fibres exceeds a certain threshold that visual field impairment is noticed. Evidence from histological studies and glaucoma modelling has shown that up to 40% of optic fibres can be damaged before a loss of visual function takes place (Quigley, et al 1982). Diffused thinning and localised notching of the neuroretinal rim (NRR) indicate early signs of the disease. The cup is affected due to the loss of fibres and it widens and deepens as a result. Also, the optic disc of a glaucomatous patient will not follow Jonas ISNT rule where the NRR is thickest at the inferotemporal sector, then at superotemporal, followed by nasal and temporal. Clinical examination using a Volk lens is, however, affected by inter-observer variability amongst optometrists. Another useful technique is stereoscopic optic nerve photography which is a cost-effective method for the detection of glaucoma and its progression. With the benefit of 3-dimensional and permanent data, practitioners can study the optic nerve features (disc cupping, vessel baring) over time (Tielsch et al, 1988). Under hospital management, comparison of these photos which have been taken over the course of the year is a highly effective method of following glaucoma progression. CHAPTER 4:HOW SUCCESSFUL ARE OPTOMETRISTS AT SCREENING FOR GLAUCOMA? A number of studies and clinical trials have been carries out on the effects of treatment on newly discovered primary open-angle glaucoma patients, and it has been noted on several occasions that immediate treatment leads to a slower rate of disease progression. (Bullimore, 2002) As one must first identify that a patient has the disease before the individual can be treated, this ultimately implies that effective screening procedures would be beneficial in the treatment of glaucoma. However, one question which this leads to is: how successful are optometrists at screening for glaucoma and are all patients who should be screened, being checked for disease progression or any clinical symptoms. 4.1 The Baltimore eye Survey The Baltimore eye survey (Tielsch, 1991) was carried out to evaluate the efficacy of population level screening procedures and evaluate the performance of the screening methods used to test for glaucoma. The research team noted that â€Å"†¦screening for glaucoma has a long history and is a well-established activity† (Tielsch, 1991). However, they also were aware that most screening organizations used tonometry as the screening technique even though it is known to have several limitations associated with its use. The efficacy of the other known screening processes were thought, by the research team, to have not received deep enough investigations into their effectiveness, and this was considered to be a reason why these methods were not being utilized in the screening processes. In research studies which had been carried out prior to this study, only small research groups had been used or the studies had proved to being biased towards individuals who have a family history of the disease and therefore highly likely to developing glaucoma themselves. (Leibowitz et al, 1980) Hence the studies were thought to provide false information about the usefulness of the analyzed screening methods. The Baltimore Eye survey looked at a total of 5,308 individuals who were forty years of age or older, including both black and white individuals and analyzed the success of screening each individual for glaucoma using â€Å"†¦tomometry, visual fields, stereoscopic fundus photography and a detailed medical and ophthalmic history.† (Tielsch et al, 1991) The survey was not limited to looking at individuals who were known to be at a high risk of developing glaucoma as this would influence the analysis of the success of certain screening methods. After the examination was complete, a diagnosis of glaucoma was made for any participant found to have indicative symptoms. Out of the 5,308 individuals participating in the study, 196 were diagnosed with glaucoma. (Tielsch et al, 1991) The research team then evaluated tonometry, cup to disc ratio, and narrowest neuroretinal rim width for their ability to correctly classify subjects into diseased or non-diseased states. There was no defined cutoff values at which these variables provided a reasonable balance of sensitivity and specificity, (separately or in combination) as this made the test more robust and thus allowed the screening method to only gain positive results if it was able to identify an individual who did indeed have glaucoma. The statistical analytical methods used to analyze the data obtained from the study included making logistic regression models of the results, which were then fit to the data. These models included demographic and other risk factors, to ensure that the analysis of the data was as accurate as possible. Sensitivities and specificities were then calculated for varying cutoff levels on the distribution of predicted probabilities. The research team came to the conclusion that there was no cut off for reasonable sensitivity and specificity and that the effectiveness of current techniques for glaucoma screening was limited. (Tielsch et al, 1991) The research said that although â€Å"at first glance, glaucoma fits the model of a disease for which screening could make a significant impact on the burden of disability in the population†¦unfortunately, objective assessments of the most commonly used technique for screening†¦demonstrate its ineffectiveness.† (Tielsch et al, 1991) The study identified that tonometry was a poor technique when it came to correctly classifying subjects as diseased or non-diseased. It also mentioned that despite intraocular pressure remaining as one of the strongest known risk factors for open angle glaucoma; measurements of this were not used as a criterion for referral in order to maximize the sensitivity of the screening examination. Tielsch et al (1991) identified only Only 215 subjects out of 1770 who were referred for further tests simply because of their intraocular pressure measurements and only four of these individuals actually had definite or probable glaucoma. This was a detection rate of 1.86 percent which is very low. Thus, the use of the intraocular pressure as a guide added little additional sensitivity beyond what was contributed by the other referral criteria. Other methods of screening for the development of glaucoma were also considered to be ineffective and cumbersome. Despite this study being carried out forty years after the initiation of screening programmes for glaucoma, the program still appeared to require extra work in order to develop a more successful screening programme. 4.2 Frequency-doubling technology study In contrast to the study carried out by Tielsh et al (1991) a study was carried out by Yamada et al (1999) with the aim to assess glaucoma screening using frequency-doubling technology (FDT) and Damato campimetry. The research group carried out a two day public glaucoma screening programme which was implicated at two different institutions. Each participant underwent the following visual field tests: Damato campimetry, FDT perimetry in screeningmode and Humphrey perimetry(24-2 FASTPAC). A full ophthalmologic examination, for each eye was also carried out. The data collected from this study was then divided into four categories, including normal, ocular hypertensive, glaucoma suspect and definite glaucoma. The sensitivity and specificity level of each test was then estimated with â€Å"receiver operating characteristic curves† (Yamada et al, 1999). The results of the eye examinations revealed that out of the 240 individuals who underwent testing, 151 were identified as being no rmal, 28 were classified as ocular hypertensive, 35 were described as having suspect glaucoma and 26 were classified as being definite glaucoma individuals when using the FDT perimetry screening mode. Out of the one hundred and seventy five subjects who underwent Damato campimetry, the numbers for the same groups were 118, 19, 19 and 19 respectively. The specificities for each test were 92-93% for the FDF perimetry and 53-90% for the Damato campimetry tests respectively, hence leading to the conclusion that FDT perimetry was superior to Damato campimetry in the screening for glaucoma within the study. (Yamada et al, 1999) However, these methods for screening are rarer than the usual tonometer and visual field analysis methods described within this paper. Despite the fact that they appear to be useful and effective methods for glaucoma screening in this case, the tests are rarely used in conventional practice and therefore the results of this study should be regarded with caution. 4.3 Burton Hospital screening study The aim of this study was to investigate the â€Å"referral practices to the outpatient clinic of a consultant ophthalmologist† and also to identify the current screening routines of optometrists and general practitioners in regards to glaucoma and diabetic retinopathy diagnosis. (Harrison, et al 1988) A total of 1437 patients were referred to Burton District Hospital, from 1 November 1986 to 31 December 1987, to be viewed by a consultant ophthalmologist. The patients were grouped into urgent, semi-urgent or non-urgent depending on their referral letters. Only 1113 patients were ultimately reviewed as the remaining 324 could not be seen by the end of the study. (Harrison, et al 1988) Selected biographical data was recorded from the case notes such as age, sex and more importantly the source of referral. Any symptoms as well as the reasons for referral were looked for in the referral letters. A classification system was used for the reason for referral; this was based on symptoms and bodily location. Furthermore, there was an analysis on the referral data for the procedures used by the referring source, in this case assessment of visual acuity, visual fields, binocular vision and the optic nerve head. Also, intraocular pressure readings as well as any fluorescein checks for corneal staining. (Harrison, et al 1988) The results showed that optometrists were responsible for 39% of the referrals (439 patients) in comparison to the 49% (546 patients) of general practitioners. The most important reason for referral was visual field loss which account for 31% (345) of cases, followed by suspected glaucoma which accounted for 13% (145). The reasons for referral were also different when comparing the two referrers. GPs referred 107 (84%) patients due to eyelid disorders and 66 (77%) patients with conditions on the outer adnexa. On the other hand optometrists were responsible for referring 118 (81%) of the patients on suspicion of glaucoma. (Harrison, et al 1988) In total there were 70 referrals for possible asymptomatic glaucoma and another 77 for symptomatic disease. In 33 cases glaucoma was confirmed (20 asymptomatic) and borderline glaucoma was found in 73 cases (48 asymptomatic). â€Å"The diagnosis was confirmed in 96 (80%) of the referrals from ophthalmic opticians but in only 10 (37%) cases referred by general practitioners.† (Harrison, et al 1988) This showed that optometrists were far more accurate in referring suspect glaucoma patients, i.e. a greater number of true positives. Using information from the referral letters, the diagnostic procedures undertaken by both referral sources was explored. Optometrists relied on intraocular pressure readings in 52 of the 96 referrals (54%). The rest of the patients were referred because of suspicious cup-disc ratios, visual field loss or other clinical aspects. However, GPs would refer mainly on the grounds of symptoms that are present. Also, the ophthalmologist did not confirm suspect glaucoma in 24 patients from the optometrists referrals and 17 from the referrals by GPs. The main conclusions from the report show that optometrist were far more likely to refer retinal or optic disc disorders. There was insufficient evidence to show that GPs screened for glaucoma â€Å"whereas ophthalmic opticians screened for glaucoma with considerable skill.† (Harrison, et al 1988). Several factors contribute to these differences between the referral abilities of both professional groups. Patients will normally visit an optometrist when they are experiencing visual loss because they are usually under the impression that they require new glasses. However, when patients have external symptoms they normally go to their GP. Due to the equipment available to optometrists they are also more likely to pick up on pathologies within the eye especially those affecting the retina and optic nerve head, hence â€Å"maintaining a high degree of vigilance for asymptomatic conditions such as glaucoma.† (Harrison, et al 1988) The suggested diagnostic accuracy, however, u ndermined the actual accuracy of the opticians examination. Any difference was due to the importance given to the findings of the ophthalmologist. The quality of referrals to the hospital is vital for maintaining an effective service, especially in Britain where many outpatients departments are overstretched. Improvement in the accuracy of referrals eventually leads to less false positive referrals, therefore enhancing the value of true positive referrals. One of the protruding reasons for false positive referrals in this study was suspected glaucoma but with â€Å"greater utilisation or development of community based screening programmes† the false positive referral rate could be reduced. Harrison, et al (1988) states that currently the closest approach to a screening programme is offered by optometrists. Harrison et al (1988) is also of the opinion that by establishing a planned screening service where ophthalmologists and optometrists work in conjunction on the basis of a fixed referral criteria, the progression of the disease in patients will reduce and so will the burden on HES. There is evidence from the data within the study to show that such glaucoma screening programme would have an influence. The 41 false positive glaucoma referrals would have been prevented and so would most of the 73 referrals for borderline glaucoma. A potential 100 outpatient appointments could have been saved with a community based screening strategy and this in turn would free up follow-up appointments. The study does show the benefit of current screening procedures and how optometrists are successful at accurately referring suspect glaucoma patients. Harrison, et al (1998) highlights that this is an invaluable skill which would prove more beneficial if used within a community based screening scheme. 4.4 England and Wales survey The objective of this survey was to investigate â€Å"the efficiency of referral for suspected glaucoma to general practitioners and consultants by optometrists.† (Tuck Crick, 1991) This survey involved 241 optometrists who represented areas clustered in England and Wales. Majority were enrolled through an interview procedure, but some responded to an advert in optometric publications. The scheme ran from November 1988 to February 1989 and each time a referral took place the optometrist would fill out a questionnaire on the individual patient. In total the respondents completed 275600 sight tests, which accounted for â€Å"about five per cent of the national total†. The actual number of referrals was 1505 for those suspected of glaucoma. For people over the age of 40 an estimated 0.9% referral rate was found. The end result of the referral was established for 1228 individuals. There were 125 patients were not examined at all and the remaining 1103 were examined by a consultant ophthalmologist. (Tuck Crick, 1991) An analysis was done on 704 cases to assess the accuracy of the referrals. Glaucoma was confirmed in 40.19% (283) of patients and 31.53% (222) of patients were further monitored. The data showed that in nearly all the confirmed patients the disease was at a chronic stage. Optometrists were further questioned to specify the key reasons for referral in each of the cases. There were 171 patients referred due to intraocular pressure in at least one eye being greater than 30mmHg. From these, 112 (65%) were positively diagnosed with glaucoma and only 20 were discharged as false positives. It was noted, however, that accuracy of referral in patients with lower IOPs (20-25mmHg) was much less. Only 7 individuals out of the 87 with lower IOPs were found to have glaucoma. Amongst them 50 patients who were released with no glaucoma. (Tuck Crick, 1991) When the optometrist recorded optic nerve head changes and visual field plots, the IOP referral accuracy was greater. However, when the referral was based on optic disc appearance and visual fields alone the accuracy was low. This category of referral accounted for 28 (10%) of confirmed cases. Furthermore, only 331 of the 704 patients had undergone a visual field test. This explained those cases in which visual field loss was not described as a reason for referral because the screening test had not been carried out in the first place. Even so, the analysis stressed â€Å"that field screening generally enables a case to be more precisely described and the risk of glaucoma thereby better assessed at the primary level.† (Tuck Crick, 1991) Gathering the evidence from th