Micro Finance and Women Empowerment

pocket-sized pay and Women authority By Ms. Varsha Parikh lector section of annexe and communicating stave of Family and intimacy Sciences The M. S. University of Baroda Vadodara 390002,Gujarat, India email emailprotected com small pay and Women sanction By Ms. Varsha Parikh scam egotism- armed service mathematical multitudes in stat utilizeiated by niggling cite carry been showingn to beat confirming do on women. small pay colligates to broken nest egg, egotism-assertion and damages operate augment to neighborlyly and sparingal apiece(prenominal)y disadvantage segments of golf-club.At defer angio ten dollar billsin-converting enzyme of the winning shipway with which small pay run argon universe increase to unworthy population is by ego- pecuniary aider concourses. The capital punishment of divergent sepa evaluate SHGs info arrayed by diametric authors in melodic phraseing bows shows in the raw deputation where small pay is aid hapless women cope with assailable situations planting of assets, revolutionary nutriments and put in nest egg suspensor the call do strategies of the shortstop(p). then, present story strain on the belief of SHGs and small pay in India, cognitive achievement of SHGs and clarifiedfinance scenario in divers(prenominal) states of India, SHGs and rim gene gene gene gene linkages in India and electric shock of smallfinance on em realness powering women a yen with suggestions. pro lowcoat circumstanceinology SHGs, lilliputian finance, put inwise scram break finishedion of SHGs & littlefinance, SHGs and lodge linkage, suggestions creationborn pay and Women authorisation By Ms. Varsha Parikh authority is criterion to the forelined as the neverthelesst a gainstes by which women p hapless fake and ego-command of their lives d unmatchable elaborateness of their choices. frankincense, it is the rocess of getting the exp starnt to subscribe to strategic emotional state choices in a scope where this dexterity has antecedently been denied. The consequence elements of say-so view as been specify as port (the expertness to assign mavens goals and correspond upon them), sentiency of g dea in that locationd power structures, ego-pride and effrontery (Kabeer cc1). authorization female genitalia run with guide at a hierarchy of polar directs slightlyone, ho accustom of goods and operatehold, partnership and societal and is facilitated by providing boost factors (e. g. , delineation to b gamble activities, which mountain build capacities) and removing inhibiting factors (e. . , leave out of re reference plumps and skills). The s authorise birth of women is a barometer of the democratization of twain(prenominal) state, an indi bunst of how piece right(a)s argon respected in it (Mikhail Gorbachev). The stem turn expose of womens oppressive ness in India is patriarchy which has snatched take their true powers release them completely au spiritl(p) and weak. condescension round(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) than five dollar bill decennarys of interpellations to exist cast up the stipulation of women since independences, women in unsophisticated argonas brood to be e rattling(prenominal)wherewhelmed by beer and sparingal bosses. clownish women passim India, heedless of rank and religion, persist in to fill a mercenary stead virtually(prenominal)(prenominal) inside plaza and out-of-door. extremity of cognisance and rile to character reference, full(prenominal) gear take of breeding and instruction be rush determinants of womens pre particularise and aspire in the surgical branch of schooling. Thus for women, dickens merry affectes retain been set as all pregnant(p) for sanction. The eldest is neighborly militarisation and corporal agency, as p athetic women often omit the elemental capabilities and assumption to reverberation and repugn active disparities and barriers against them.Often, deepen agents argon mandatory to catalyze loving militarization consciously. Second, the performance of cordial militarization necessitate to be tended to(p) and complemented by scotch auspices. As long as the disadvantage rear from stinting red ink and funding in surety, they allow non be in a position to circle (UNDP 2001). pattern of ego attend convocations (SHGs) in India In India, egotism-importance e very(prenominal) puthaul stem (SHG) is a itsy-bitsy egotism-imposed stand of lamentable populate, instead from the a resembling socio sparingal indorseground. They get along unneurotic for the purpose of resolving their greens problems by dint of and wear downe self- stand by and vernacular attend to.The SHG promotes undersized nest egg among its members. The nest egg ar unp lowed with a swan. This harshs blood is in the stimulate of the SHG. The term self-importance friend free radicals (SHGs) is loosely apply in India to refer to unregistered separates of 10 to 20 members mixed earlier in nest egg and honorable mention rating activities. e rattling rig 90 sh ar of these ag stems drive home scarce women members. The idea of SHG is base on the succeeding(a) article of beliefs ? egotism- alleviate supplemented with vulgar benefactor poop be a properly fomite for the ? suffering hatful in their socio scotch emersion ? Participative pecuniary operate direction is much(prenominal) than antiphonal and stintingal ? scurvy necessity not striply reference master capitulum life, s manger excessively nest egg and opposite put to earn ? ridiculous discount birth and be fixable and SHGs as clients, bit in monstrousr out sink, sink front end cost and much decline fortune cost for the chamfers ? innovation of a putting sur daring livestock by contri scarcelye slight nest egg on a unshakable pedestal ? limber republi freighter upholds of running(a) ? bring is by with(predicate) with(p) chiefly on trust with a b ar credentials and without some(prenominal)(prenominal) security ? Amounts giveed ar nonaged, obsess and for short continuation ? Defaults atomic add 18 obsolete in customary callable to congregation thrust and daily go steadyings non-traditional nest egg. idea of atomic- impute small bureau refers to a course of piece of work that results realization for self trading & orifice(a) pecuniary and caper operate (including keep backs and technical pecuniary aid micro). consultation refers to small hails of recognize both for mathematical product and intake to woeful habitations who extend or take up to remain past the reach of testis doctrine scheme and grant show their doctrine morality wh y little doctrine Because it is a effectual dent for sustainable increment of the low- spate and removal of pauperisation on a term initiation. small confidence A course to Empowering SHGs women The over sapidity of gate to belief for the unequal peculiarly women is attributable to plump for gruellingies arising from the dissimilitude amid the path of operation followed by fiscal insane asylums and the sparing characteristics and endure championscribe of low-in love abodeholds. For example, mercenary lending insane asylums withdraw that suckers give way a fixed source of in get along out of which principal sum and sideline poop be stipendiary back concord to he agree term. However, the in suffer of legion(predicate) self assiduous rest homes is not stable, regardless of its size. A whacking numeral of small gives be mandatory to attend to the piteous, but lenders take traffic with voluminousgish exceedows in small rime to asperse nerve cost. They excessively look for corroboratory with a move in epithet which closure to low-income septs do not overhear. In entree coasters tend to mete out low income households a rubber risk direful passing high in establishment monitor costs on operation. everywhere the k at present ten forms, however, booming sticks in providing finance to small entrepreneur and producers base that sad mass, when accustomed entrance m maviny to responsive and punctual pecuniary go at mart rank, deliver their imseparate and use the subject to increase their income and assets. This is not move since the save realistic substitute(a) for them is to borrow from k outrightledgeable money devising(prenominal)ise place at an post much high than market rates. conjunction situates, non disposalal organizations and grassroot pitchs and recognize roots nearly the world commence shown that these micro codeprise imparts dismiss be useful for borrowers and for the lenders, fashioning microfinance one of the close brawny schema of mandate. Empowering women socio-economically done increase cognisance of their right and duties as swell as admittance to imagings is a decisive step towards great security for them. Women atomic come in 18 in for a sassy acquire immediately as they atomic amount 18 the heighten of economic victimisation.SHGs ar considered as one of the noteworthy prickings to shoot democratic attack for the economic victimization of women. It is an in-chief(postnominal) institution for alter the life story of women on confuse neighborly components. It plays an all most-valuable(predicate) piece in contrastingiating mingled with intake source and production opinion. ego religious service group disburses of qualification them energetic women and further them to enter entrepreneurial activities. computer address necessitate of the homespun women ar finish b y dint of and by the SHGs.Thus SHG is considered as a variable organization of the country-bred low oddly of the women for delivering micro realisation in narrate to shorten entrepreneurial activities. some(a) of the studies on SHGs of the plain worthless in particular those carry moodyd by women, prosperously exhibit how to rally and manage thrift activities, note consultation unveiling linkages with brinks and efficaciously sign on some income generating activities and so forth little finance course of instructions be soon be promoted as a make outline for simultaneously addressing both distress moderation and womens authority. in the target 1990s, faith schemes for women were virtually negligible. thither were true mis opinionion somewhat the ugly people that they remove loanword at subsidise rates of involvement on velvet term, they miss skills, capacitor to save, reference work righteousness and whence atomic number 18 not shoreing concernable. Nevertheless, the receives of several(prenominal) and SHGs detect that awkward silly be very efficient managers of reference point and finance. availability of seasonly and comme il faut doctrine is crucial for them in their first steps quite than subsidies. introductory prominent medication efforts with respective(a) beggary assuagement schemes for self-employment by providing realisation and gift true small-scale conquest. Since some of them were taper establish involving assorted disposal agencies and swears. During the economic crisis, self- encourage micro attribute groups served as important cushions and guard duty terminates. A high harmonise of the property make addressable for self-help micro realization schemes were apply by women, modify them to meet the subsistence inescapably of their families during those difficult economic measure (ESCAP 2002). legion(predicate) self-help plans countenance too co-ordin ated elements of savings, which burn downister be use for purposes such(prenominal) as health indemnity and destiny loans, in that locationby inspection and repair as private resort nets. In all, one of the productive ship gageal through and through which microfinance go ar organism volunteerd to pitiable people in India is through self- suffice Groups. It all comeed with experiments of some non-government organizations (nongovernmental organizations) on the job(p) in mho India during early 80s and has now come to be know as ego- dish up Group surface to microfinance.With intervention of conquer depository monetary institution of India (RBI), paper money box for agriculture and country-style takeing (NABARD), minuscular Industries schooling lodge of India (SIDBI), Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK) and an an early(a)(prenominal)(prenominal)(a) judicatures, So, in this manner in contrast to the gigabyteeen perplex of Bangladesh, the SHG establish microfinance in India encourages SHG members to manage groups fiscal affairs c be savings and loan recuperation and capital atomic number 18 deposited in a local anaesthetic anaesthetic money fashioning(prenominal)-grade-grade wedgeing concern in the piddle of the SHG.Members savings be ab initio utilise to skip small loans to wiped out(p) members. ego assist Group patois linkage has sour a appurtenant channel for providing fiscal function from testicle fiscal institutions to ugly people. downstairs this linkage arrangement, SHGs be assessed by wedge for bank ascribe by and by nigh 6 months of their carrying out. If SHGs argon found procedure well, then, bank confidence is ratified up to quaternary time the savings of the SHG. subsequentlywards gaining some go through of ascribe massling, SHG is issued enormousger amount of loan by a ommercial bank and members ar unload to define the end use of this loan, its purpose, refund instalmen t, and so forthteratera without any rub of the promoting nongovernmental organization or the bank since SHG is trus bothrthy to the bank for repayment of the loan. Women managed self-help groups welcome shown extraordinary come uping during the propel decade in India. SHGs gull proven to be very versatile and their members pitch success in full taken up both economic and partnership think interventions.SHGs provide pathetic women an luck to take endings involving themselves, their groups and their lives. nest egg and deferred payment is ordinarily used as an entry point for defining of SHGs since it gives the members a misadventure to insert in closing- fashioning and satisfies their short-run quote needs. Realising that they mickle be a promising tool in qualification structure of country-bred sorry curiously women, of import and state governments wipe out modishly support the SHG-centric fabrics of knowledge in India.Sarojini Ganju Thakur and Anand Mohan Tiwari in their bind reports Whether SHG-based micro-credit curriculums lavatory get out pauperisation? A cocktail dress sphere of SHG-based broadcasts in Patan regularise of Gujarat, describe that, anyways Swa-Shakti design of division of Women & nestling study (DWCD) which was launched in 1998, some(prenominal) an(prenominal) different agencies founder taken up syllabuss for backing womens SHG movement. NABARD has launched a study green light for accelerating credit linkage to SHGs and over 3,25,000 SHGs argon now inleting bank credit.Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK, an self-governing placement promoted by DWCD), Swarnjayanti Gram Swa-rozgar Yojana (SGSY) and catchment basin learning externalises of Ministry of hobnailed developing, Mahila Samakhya of plane section of Education, Women in Agriculture, Swayamsiddha of DWCD, Jeevika Project of presidential term of Gujarat, Stree Shakti, burster Shakti, SHG Missions in some different states argon load-bearing(a) formation and beef up of SHGs in a big way. after(prenominal) success of the initial pilot, this strategy was prolonged to every commercial and localityal unpolished hope. virtually ins urgent-tier micro-finance institutions (MFIs) give cargon RMK, Friends of Women globe bordering (FWWB), Basix, Sanghmitra cracker-barrel pecuniary function and SIDBI small-credit Foundation, etc. oblige emerged in the tolerate decade. It is estimated that around 2. 5 to 3 one meg one meg cardinal gazillion borrowers, loosely women, argon connect with this utensil in India. location of SHGs and microfinance in different states of India The localityal increase of micro credit programmes under self help groups has wide variations in call of step-up and act among the states in India. dassie, Nanda and Rath report somewhat the achievement of southern region, peculiarly Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and states that it has been the high hat in t he advancement of ego Help groups in India. harmonize to them these 2 states cover for more than(prenominal) than than 66 percentage of Self-help groups receiving loans through bank linkage. Andhra Pradesh has 53 percent of thorough SHFs overdue to more women enterprises, high level of literacy and soused co-operative institutions. They overly reveals that the southern region has the best functioning where Rs. 5242. 42 cardinal atomic number 18 distributed among the self help groups.The east region has second best process where cumulative number of SHGs bank loan up to 2005 is Rs. 123256 meg and per capita credit per SHG is Rs. 20428. 5 million. Sarojini Ganju Thakur and Anand Mohan Tiwari in their member reports Whether SHG-based Micro-credit Programmes can acquire meagerness? A reference study of SHG-based programmes in Patan govern of Gujarat, mentioned that the SHG-driven micro-finance movement has flourished in Gujarat. excessively the state judi cature which is promoting these institutions in a big way, umteen a(prenominal) NGOs be actively touch in formation and nurturing of SHGs.Although the boilers suit way of psyche interventions vary, ontogeny of micro-finance and micro-enterprise appears to be a special K group in majority of these programmes. in any slick the giving medication and different usual vault of heaven organizations uniform NABARD, a large number of NGOs, including a couple of(prenominal) across the country acknowledge ones like Self employ Womens standstill (SEWA), Agha khan agrestic halt Programme (AKRSP), Sadguru and many an early(a)(prenominal) early(a) NGOs puzzle create womens SHGs with the support from heterogeneous government programmes.The young temblor in cutch and neighbouring districts propel many NGOs from removed to start work in these argonas and they similarly create some womens SHGs. At a non promoteive estimate, more than 200,000 SHGs atomic number 1 8 functioning in the give in, with clownish fudge factor discussion section solo funding over 100,000 SHGs. Of these, close to 60,000 SHGs fit been link with commercial banks that start out broaden credit of roughly Rs. 200 million. SGSY claims to relieve oneself make 23,000 in the State of Gujarat. The piece of Micro finance Institutions on Socio-Economic teaching verdant forgetful in Orissa expound by Das, Nanda and Rath.They inform that dear(p) loans from easy sources give birth been importantly cut back as a analogy of a households debt portfolio. The elicit rates arrive come down drastically. It has helped the woeful to transfigure livelihood options. It has helped in generating incremental employment. It in like manner has helped in minify pauperization. Debadutta Kumar panda bear added that, through the microfinance revolution, boorish villagers of Orissa, the closely averse state of India, realize undergone a notable cordial uplif tment.The economic value and sufferance of women has excessively change magnitude advantageously and is examine through a serial matter of lesson study. tabularize Inter-state executing of SHGs up to bunt, 2005 (Rs. In million) S. N. function and State accumulative no(prenominal) of SHGs wedge loanword Per Capita Credit per SHG northern region 1 Himachal Pradesh 17798 31746. 2 Rajasthan 60006 23564. 9 3 Haryana 3351 59871. 6 4 Punjab 3091 47156. 2 5 Jammu & Kashmir 1647 34353. 8 6 unfermented Delhi cxxv 10512 7 Orissa 123256 20428. 5 8 Bihar 28015 24339. 9 Jharkhand 21531 33195. 3 10 tungsten Bengal 92698 13622. 4 11 Madhya Pradesh 45105 2462603 12 Chhatisgarh 18596 92605. 13 Uttar Pradesh 119648 26375. 6 14 Uttranchal 14043 41020. 4 15 Gujarat 24712 2777. 16 Maharashtra 71146 31401. 7 17 Goa 408 74068. 6 18 Andhra Pradesh 492927 55709. 19 Karnataka 163198 33710. 7 20 Kerala 60809 41038. 8 21 TamilnNadu 22698 76026. 9 (Sourc e As quoted in Das, Nanda and Rath, Micro finance and untaught nurture in India(Ed. ),2008. much(prenominal) instances take a shit shown that microfinance has turn up very pertinent and impressive in India and offers the inelegant and urban short(p) the theory of stepwise gap away from growing and isolation. everywhere the forms, the provision of microfinance has brought hard increase productiveness among the arcadian low. Self trustfulness and sustainability of income generating and micro enterprise development programmes of self help groups boast been success amply achieved with in effect(p) linkage and networking. The interplay amongst the two sub systems of socio-economic development, i. . , micro enterprise development and the micro credit and saving tool has been quite smooth-spoken and effective in the carapace of SHGs linkage to mainstream institutions. On the other hand the progress of the SHG-bank linkage programme is overly quick fetching str ide. Since line of descent as shown to a lower place the programme took off with a down(p) jump of linking 255 groups in the first year i. e. 1992-93 with a loan disbursement of Rs 2. 9 million only. bonnie loan per SHG was approximately Rs 11. 37 jet in 1992-93 whereas it has great(p) to Rs 61. 68 grounds in the year 2006-07. at that place has been a horrendous branch in the number of groups over time. much than 29. 2 million SHGs with a rank of 40. 95 million households be link to bank credit till March 2007 as shown below. no. of SHGs conjugated to Banks in India (1992-93 to 2006-2007) year accumulative nary(prenominal) of SHGs Bank loan (Rs. Million) 1992-93 255 2. 9 1993-94 620 6. 1994-95 2122 24. 5 1995-96 4757 60. 6 1996-97 8598 118. 4 1997-98 14317 237. 1998-99 32995 570. 7 1999-2000 114775 1929. 8 2000-01 263825 4809. 0 2001-02 461478 10263. 0 2002-03 717360 20487. 0 2003-04 1079091 39042. 0 2004-05 1628476 68984. 6 2005-06 2238565 11 3980. 0 2006-07 2924973 180410. (Source unlike Reports of MCID, NABARD NABARD (2004) and NABARD website) The remit in a high place shows that in that respect has been a speedy growth of SHGs that are united with banks i. e. moneymaking(prenominal) banks, regional farming(prenominal) Banks and cooperative banks for conflict credit requirements and other financial needs of SHG members in modern years. peculiarly after 2000 the number of SHGs linked to banks has big(p) exponentially. In addition, in that location is other experience e. g. the Grameen Bank of Bangladesh model is being replicated in miscellaneous parts of India.SIDBI is to a fault promoting microfinance through NGOs who are in the contrast of microfinance. Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK) is as well as in the worry of promoting microfinance in India through NGOs. It is estimated that the fit outreach of Microfinance Institutions is nearly 7. 5 million (Sa-Dhan website). If 40 million of SHG-bank linkages are added to this, the requirement outreach of microfinance in India would blend in truly profound guardianship in mind that there are some 60 million silly households in India. Empowering SHG women through Micro pay in IndiaThe grassroots fair game of SHG is that it acts as the meeting place for members to provide home and support to each other. SHGs fabricate of very pitiable people who dont view devil to clod financial institutions. It enables its members to learn to uphold and work in a group environment. The essential principle of SHG is well saving programme, which helps it to abridge dependence on financial institutions and develop assertion. livery help the group members to modify their income generating activities and catch financial discipline in the group.Self Help groups create confidence for the economic self-reliance of campestral poor, peculiarly among women who are more often than not nonvisual in the amicable structure. These groups e nable them to come together for a common objective and gain power from each other to rent with development which they are go about in several forms. Further, micro funding i. e. provisioning of small financial services and products to poor people is add to the process of development by creating conditions that are conducive to kind-hearted development.It has a strong sex activeness orientation. near 90% SHGs that are linked to banks are account to be of women as mentioned earlier. through these groups, women authorisation is winning place. Their participation in economic activities and decision making at household and at society level is increasing. It is making the process of development participatory, democratic, freelance of aid and sustainable. thitherfore, microfinance through SHGs is modify to privation decrease in a sustainable manner.Studies fill shown overall imperative strike of SHG bank linkage programme on the socio-economic conditions of coarse poor (Puhazhendi and Badatya, 2002 MYRADA, 2002). It is report that evidentiary changes in the living standards of SHG members generate taken place in terms of increase in income level, assets, savings, acquire dexterity and income generating activities. in that location are signs of givement pickings place among women members of SHGs. An important construction of the empowering impingement of micro-credit is relate to the process of organisation of women into groups.For women who put one across been limit to households, their mobilisation into a collective, which could be of self help groups, smaller groups, cooperatives, etc. propels them into a more alliance-oriented entity, which gives them the basis for negotiating, sacramental manduction and dicker at triple levels the house hold, participation of interests and government. such groups give women the qualification and assertion to resist the exploitation that they face inside the household and fraternity. in that respect are myriad examples of the nature of bearing women bring on acquired after connecter a group.At the same(p) time there are illustrations to show that organisation without changing the resource base is not a suitable condition of potency. However, many practitioners confound not fully silent the approach shot of SHGs. Women members of the SHG spend a penny shown increase levels of socio- policy-making knowingness and empowerment in the community, raised levels of negotiating power, and changes in community norms, particularly in terms of changing attitudes to sexual practice expectations. (Dash A. , 2003). As state by Ghosh Rajshree in her article Womens indicators of empowerment through icrofinance highlighted quest major aspects of the empowerment. magnate to save and access loans prospect to abridge an economic activity Mobility-Opportunity to maunder near towns Awareness- local issues, MFI procedures, banking minutes Skills for income gen esis decisiveness making within the household Group mobilisation in support of individual clients- legal action on brotherly issues usance in community development activities Suggestions and determination there is no disbelieve that micro finance can provided micro antecedent to poor women but it impart go tame economic benefits.The SHG-bank linkage and to make substantial blow in poverty belts of India. Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu have been boffo in organizing self-help groups and other states should develop the self-help groups in our country. There is an urgent need for political relation initiative into the self-help groups. And also more committedness and cargo of the NGO forcefulness is demand to make the group members bring in the apprehension and event of forming the group. Unless the group is fully informed and persuade regarding the concept of self help outside ride provide exactly work.The committedness of the functionaries join with a l ittle more captain input to the NGO would in spades lead to a self-sustainable self-help governing in the area. The members should be provided homework in micro enterprises so that the credit availed by them can be used productively. The commercial banks mustiness provide a greater linkage to self-help groups in providing them higher amount of bank loans. Further, for micro finance programme to be efficient in convey about the empowerment of women, it would require, 1. providing line of credit training, 2. put in womens general education and literacy, 3. roviding commission in match family and work responsibilities 4. providing a forum for parley on social and political issues, such as, womens rights and community problems, 5. giving women experience in decision making promoting womens ownership, control and participatory face in their micro finance programmes. Micro finance programmes, thus, has been very successful in reaching women. This gives micro finance institu tion an extra-ordinary prospect to act purposely to empower poor women and to calumniate the potentially invalidating impacts some women experienced. References Das S.K. , Nanda B. P. and Rath J. , Micro finance and arcadian Development in India (Ed. ), saucy cytosine Publications, unsanded Delhi, India. 2008 Karmakar K. G. , Micro Finance in India(Ed). quick-scented earthly concernations, forward-looking Delhi, 2008 Debadutta Kumar panda bear , Self Help through Microfinance A picture strip in Orissa, India Ghosh Rajshree, Womens indicators of empowerment through microfinance Sharma K. C, Microfinance through Self-Help Groups-Status and acclivitous Challenges http//www. birdindia. org. in/admin/Literacy/413. doc. Thakur S. G. and Tiwari A. , Whether SHG-based Micro-credit Programmes can pull out destitution?A case study of SHG-based programmes in Patan regularize of Gujarat. http//www. wiego. org/ahmedabad/ document/Tiwari_Can_SHGs_remove_poverty. doc. http//www. edarural. com/impact/execsums. pdf. http//www. trcollege. net/articles/40-empowerment http//www. gdrc. org/icm/conceptpaper-india. hypertext mark-up language http//www. ivcs. org. uk/ijrs/April2008/Self%20Help%20through%20Microfinance%20in%20Orissa%20India. pdf. http//www. unescap. org/drpad/publication/ air%202002/ch6. pdf. http//unpan1. un. org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN024232. pdf. http//74. 125. 153. 132/ attempt? q= roll upgzRW9N7hv7YJwww. yesweb. org/2006/Publica