Theories of counseling and psychotherapy Essay Example for Free

Theories of counseling and psychotherapy Essay 1.1 Defining the Core Constructs of Adlerian Therapy. When Gina says she is determined, Dr. Carlson asks her where her determination is directed. What is his intent? Gina responds with happiness. Her own and her two boys. His intent is to get her to focus on the good and the progress made. He trying to scaffold the sessions questioning to determine more information and to promote client self awareness. His intent is as well for her to see the goal setting nature she internally is projecting. He is demonstrating a life style assessment and the ability for one to control where they want or see themselves. The use of open ended questions allow Gina to elaborate to gather more information. Why would Dr. Carlson tie Ginas motivations back to her parents? Dr. Carlson is following Adlerian’s theory that our future choices are driven by past experiences. By tying Gina’s motivations to her parents he is to showing her future behavior decisions were molded by mother and father through actions that she witnessed as a child. What basic life tasks does Gina describe in this footage? Gina describes the life tasks of occupation,love and social interests. Happiness,eventually a committed relationship and that her boys grow up to be happy and make good choices. Gina is demonstrating achievement of HIs intent is to scaffold the sessions questioning to determine more information and to promote client self awareness. He is also trying to activating the goal setting nature she internally is projecting. He is demonstrating a life style assessment and the ability for one to control where they want or see themselves. The use of open ended questions allow Gina to elaborate to gather more information.,competence and mastery. Theses are three of the lifestyle components Alder speaks about in his theory. 1.2 Conceptualizing Clients Using Adler’s Holistic Approach Dr. Carlson identifies patterns in Ginas early recollections. What do these patterns tell us about Ginas private logic? Gina’s private logic depends on what she viewed in her surroundings that she remembered. The lifestyle she was exposed to allowed her to develop her own compass to live by. It is hard to remember for her but Gina realized she had been doing things for herself to make herself happy rather than anyone else. Such as her obtaining the top ten in her class. Dr. Carlson suggests that Gina is almost selfish to a fault. What part does selfishness play in wellness and pathology, according to Adler? According to Alder, being selfish in regards to wellness and pathology, is natural. We are to become a contributing part of a larger social system. Gina is adapting to basically meet her needs and the needs she thinks are qualities of a â€Å"good† parent. Her feeling that is her responsibility to raise her children and a home is all on her and not letting her husband help is not really a good thing but a coping mechanism she has developed to handle situations. 1.3 Assessment and Treatment in Adlerian Theory In his clip, Dr. Carlson focuses on Ginas early recollections. What important assessment information is he seeking through his questions? Dr Carlson is seeking through his questioning the understanding of her lifestyles and how she viewed the world through asking her to elicit her memories of her siblings. He can also be trying to get a view of the family dynamic through using these types of questions. What elements of the treatment process can you identify in this clip? I can identify phase two, lifestyle assessment as a child, understanding of the person and the problem. Family constellation,birth order and earliest recollections priorities and ways of behaving are indicators of this phase. 1.4 Adlerian Therapeutic Techniques (Written case study) In what ways might an Adlerian therapist ask Steve to Act As If’? An  Adlerian therapists’s may as Steve to â€Å"Act as if â€Å" as follows; †¢Open questioning †¢Purposeful questioning By using questions being with â€Å"what† and â€Å"how† a counselor can elicit a response leading toward understanding or self awareness,self motivation and a level of self disclosure. References Seligman, L., Reichenberg, L. W. (2014). Theories of counseling and psychotherapy: Systems, strategies, and skills / Linda Seligman, late professor emeritus, George Mason University, Lourie W. Reichenberg, licensed professional counselor, Falls Church, Virginia.

Notions Of Epistemic Internalism And Externalism Philosophy Essay

Notions Of Epistemic Internalism And Externalism Philosophy Essay Epistemic justification is the basis for both internalism and externalism as they relate to knowledge. Until the onset of the Gettier problems, knowledge had been commonly held as justified true belief, that is, justification added to true belief makes knowledge. However it is more commonly recognized now that there must be another element to the equation. What kind of justification? It is this question that brings forth the notions of epistemic internalism and externalism, and this question which will be critically addressed in this essay. Epistemic internalism refers to justification as an internal matter of various mental states and their relation to knowledge. Internal matter consists of memories, perceptions, reflections, etc., all of which can give rise to justification irrespective of how they relate to the external world. In other words, if you know some premise (p) then you must also know that you know (p), which is the justification of your belief. To be assessed further in this essay, internalism is supported by the related principles of evidentialism, the conclusive justification theory, virtue epistemology, and the deontological conception of epistemic justification. Inversely, epistemic externalism upholds that a decent theory of knowledge should involve a component of external justification, instead of, or in addition to internal justifications. Justification must come from some form of reliable logical process or cognitive faculty, not merely to be inferred by reflection. You can know some premise (p), if and only if your belief that (p) is i. True, and ii. justified. Again, with further investigation of the externalist foundations of reliabilism, the casual theory of knowledge, and the truth tracking condition of belief, epistemic externalism will be examined and evaluated. Internalism is primarily influenced by appealing to evidentialism as premise. Evidentialists, true to their name, require evidence to support the justification of a belief. As aforementioned, this evidence is of an internal nature, meaning, if a person S is internally justified in believing a certain thing, then this may be something he can internally know just by reflecting upon his own state of mind (Chisholm, 1989: 7) Chisholm means that something must be what he calls directly recognizable, or recognizable upon reflection, and on any occasion. When these two qualifications meet, then they, constitute grounds, or reasons, or evidence for thinking that we know [something] (Chisholm, 1977:17). He takes this theory further and separates his justification requirements into accessibility internalism in which justification is recognizable upon reflection, and in terms of the accessibility of the justification, and mental state internalism, which requires that justifiers must be internal to the mind (i.e. mental states or events). These theories extend a constraint over justification, making it necessarily directly recognizable. Matthias Steup gives the equation example, any time at which S holds a justified belief B, S is in a position to know at T that B is justified (Steup, 2001). This means that because S is able to directly recognize B, then T is the time at which direct recognition takes place. This claim, however, is refuted by external justification and will be addressed in the externalist argument to follow. Some support for internalism includes the deontological conception of epistemic justification, which is a concept of epistemic (not ethical) duties which arise in the pursuit of truth (Pappas, 2005). A equation to exemplify this, S is justified in believing P if in believing P, S does not violate any of his epistemic duties or, if in believing P, S does not fail to do what he ought to in the pursuit of truth (Steup, 2001). According to George Pappas, justification is a matter of epistemic duty fulfilment, making what determines justification identical to what determines epistemic duty. Subsequently, if what determines justification and duty is directly recognizable, then justification is directly recognizable (to ones self). Internalists argue that reliable belief formation is neither necessary nor sufficient for justification or knowledge, when added to true belief (unless supported by adequate evidence). Take the example of Descartes most sceptical theory, the Evil Demon argument, in which one cannot be sure of anything but ones own existence, due to the fact that there is no way of knowing whether or not you are being deceived. To prove that reliable belief production is not necessary for justification, internalists appeal to the possibility of deception by this demon. According to the argument, ones beliefs in the normal world would mirror that of the evil world, thus making it impossible to detect deception. However while beliefs in the normal world would be true, beliefs in the evil world would be false and, according to externalism, thus unjustified. According to internalism however, beliefs in the evil world are also supported by adequate evidence (there is no difference as far as your evidence i s concerned) and so are in fact justified. And so, according to internalists, beliefs in the evil demon world, are also usually supported by adequate evidence and are thus justified. Internalists reject the claim that being produced by reliable cognitive faculties is a necessary condition of epistemic justification (Steup, 2001). In the case of externalism it is important to understand the underpinning theories which comprise this epistemic view. Reliabilism as a theory of knowledge does not require justification, but requires truth and a reliable belief formation, for which internal reflection does not suffice. A defender of reliabilism and thus externalism as well, Frede Dretske argues that justification is not a necessary element of knowledge. By asserting that an animal is able to possess knowledge for example and that by acting on inherent beliefs enables it to know something, what additional benefits are conferred by a justification that the beliefs are being produced in some reliable way? If there are no additional benefits, what good is this justification? Why should we insist that no one can have knowledge without it? (Dretske, 1989: 95). Because of some cognitive origin of the animals belief, a reflection based internal justification becomes unnecessary and obsolete. It is however imperative that th e cognitive origin of belief is reliable. Without the reliability constraint the connection between justification and truth becomes too tenuous. Externalists as a whole believe that it is because of the link between justification and truth being so flimsy, that they demand proof of a strong likelihood of truth. This thing (x) which produces or provides reliability to a belief must, yield mostly true beliefs in sufficiently large and varied run of employments in situations of the sorts we typically encounter (Alston, 1993: 9). It is this truth factor of reliability (absent from the internalist requirements for justification) that rules out a system of beliefs perceived to be justified, but which are in fact being produced by an evil demon who creates falsity within our lives. Since the beliefs held in the evil world would not be true, and thus reliable, then they cannot be known. This proof then begs the question, of what use is internal justification if it is the sort that an evil d eceiver may possess. (Steup, 2001). Externalists refute internal justification as valid, a position that does seem to make sense practically. Simply because someone can perceive of something or reflect upon something in their mind, does not necessarily make that thing knowledge. In support of externalism is the premise of the casual belief theory, which suggests that some extra condition must be placed upon justified true belief solely comprising knowledge. This extra condition is held by externalists to be a reliable cognitive process. The truth tracking condition, developed by Robert Nozick in his 1981 work Philosophical Explorations, claims that knowledge must be true belief plus a truth tracking condition, articulated in terms of a subjunctive connection to the world. To summarize, it seems that knowledge is just a foundational concept to which we can apply various theories to provide justification in certain instances. Externalism as a theory recognizes this and instead of requiring justification by mental evidence, instead simply calls for a logical process of understanding which then leads the subject to the attainment of knowledge. Due to the convincing elements of Dretskes assertion about an animals ability to possess knowledge without the ability to reflect upon it, and the two epistemic notions of Descartes evil demon argument, it does seem that externalism is a more plausible theory of knowledge. The ability to know that you know something in your own mind remains unconvincing in terms of knowledge requirements and true belief. Externalists view justification as an evaluative term of appraisal, meaning that it is used to judge the nature of a belief, not to determine whether or not a belief can be knowledge. Internalists on the other hand require justification, but limit this justification to mental processes. It simply seems illogical to suppose that memories, beliefs, and reflection can be requirements for knowledge, when truth and a reliable external reasoning process is a much more valid and solid approach to gaining knowledge.

The Language of MIT :: Numbers School Education Communication Essays

The Language of MIT "I have 18.02 due at 4:00 P. M. on 11/14/00 in 16-135. Then I have to go to 8.01 in 26-100 at 5:00 P. M. and get at least a 65 on Exam 3. Do you remember the Athena cluster combination? Oh, yeah, it's 43169*." To an average person, this jargon sounds like a computer code or a series of misunderstandings. However, every MIT student has probably said and heard something like this to describe his or her schedule in a small part of the day. Numbers are the language at MIT, and they specify all sorts of places, classes, work, time, and even the students themselves. This powerful yet simple system of communication has completely engulfed this school and made organization much easier because of the clarity of numbers and the obscurity of language. Even before I considered applying to MIT, I thought of this school as a center of mathematics and science. Of course the name suggests this fact, but not until I visited the campus during the summer before my senior year of high school did I realize the truth of that statement. My visit began with directions to "Lobby 7" where I would meet with a tour guide. Coming from a high school where all the buildings were named and clearly labeled outside, I expected a giant number seven on the front edifice of a building to designate it from the others, but I had no such luck. Instead, I scanned the map of the campus several times before finding Building 7 on Massachusetts Avenue. I did not find this designation for the building anywhere outside until I went in and saw one of the doors inside surrounding the massive lobby. When my tour began, the guide led us through a myriad of identical halls and corridors until we finally went outside. She began to describe the numbering system across campus and explained that many of the buildings we walked through were distinguished on the outside only by numbers on the doors, which I had not understood quite yet. Then she listed some of the required freshman courses including multiple semesters of Calculus and the three main natural sciences. Following the tour was an information session for prospective students and their parents to ask questions about the admissions process.

What Doth A Leader Make? :: essays research papers

<a href="http://www.geocities.com/vaksam/">Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites How come a leader becomes a leader? In this article, we are not interested in the historical process but in the answer to the twin questions: what qualifies one to be a leader and why do people elect someone specific to be a leader. The immediately evident response would be that the leader addresses or is judged by his voters to be capable of addressing their needs. These could be economic needs, psychological needs, or moral needs. In all these cases, the needs are judged to be serious enough as to threaten acceptable existence (emphasis on the word â€Å"acceptable†). Mere survival is rarely at risk (famine, war, plague). On the contrary, people are mostly willing to sacrifice their genetic and biological survival on the altar of acceptable existence. To be acceptable, life must be honourable. To be honourable, certain conditions (commonly known as â€Å"rights†) must be fulfilled and upheld. No life can be honourable without food and shelter (property rights), person al autonomy (as safeguarded by freedoms), security, respect (as expressed through human rights) and influence upon the future (civil rights). In the absence of even one of these elements, people tend to gradually become convinced that their lives are not worth living. They become mutinous and try to restore the â€Å"honourable equilibrium†. They seek food and shelter by inventing new technologies and by implementing them in a bid to control nature and other, human, factors. They rebel against any massive breach of their freedoms : free speech has provoked more bloodshed than it has ever prevented. The seek security : they legislate and create law enforcement agencies and form an army. Above all, people are concerned with being respected and with influencing their terms of existence, present and future. The two may be linked : the more able a person is to influence his environment, to mould it – the more respected he is by others. Leaders are perceived to be possessed of qualities conducive to the success of such battles of restoration. Some signal that the leader emits keeps telling his followers : I can increase your chances to win the war that you are waging in order to find food and shelter / respect / personal autonomy / security / an enhanced ability to influence your future. But WHAT is this signal? What information does it carry with it?

A Good Man Is Hard to Find: Irony

â€Å"A Good Man is Hard to Find† In the short story, â€Å"A Good Man is Hard to Find† there is irony all through the pages. It shows how you should follow your gut instinct when you think you shouldn’t go somewhere, when you know something bad is going to happen. In the story it also talks about how the grandmother wore her nice clothes in case of an accident, she wanted to look like a lady in case anything bad was to happen. The grandmother was constantly talking about the good in people, but was she a good woman? The first bit of irony the story throws at the reader is on the first page when the grandmother is talking about how she doesn’t want to go to Florida because that’s where the Misfit is headed. As the grandmother is trying to get her son Bailey to listen as she says, â€Å"The Misfit is aloose from the Federal Pen and headed toward Florida and you read here what it says he did to these people. Just you read it. I wouldn’t take my children in any direction with a criminal like that aloose in it. I couldn’t answer to my conscience if I did† (O’Connor 281). Now I don’t believe that the ironic twist is that the misfit was headed to Florida just like the family, I believe that the twist is that the Misfit just so happen be on the same dirt road that the grandmother asked her son Bailey to turn down later on in the story. The grandmother wanted to turn down this dirt road in Georgia because she remembered an old plantation house she had visited when she was younger. After turning down the road she then remembered that this was not the road at all, the old plantation house she had remembered was in Tennessee, not Georgia. The second major ironic twist that stood out to me was how the grandmother wore good clothes to go on a road trip, â€Å"In case of an accident, anyone seeing her dead on the highway would know at once she was a lady† (O’Connor 282). The grandmother wore a navy dress with a straw hat that had white violets on it. Indeed the grandmother was dressed like a lady, but did she act upon it at all times? I think she did just that, I believe she acted like a lady but was not truly one. Grandmothers cat caused Bailey to have an accident. †¦as the grandmother limped out of the car, her hat still pinned to her head but the broken front brim standing up at a jaunty angle and the violet spray hanging off the side† (O’Connor 287). At this point is when I believe that the grandmother acts as if she is a lady. If she was a true lady then maybe her clothes would not have been messed up, or there wouldn’t have been an accident at all. But there is still that piec e of thought about how the grandmother knew to dress in case of an accident. The final bit of irony is how the grandmother kept talking about good men, and how they are hard to find. When the family stops at the diner to eat she talks to Red Sammy and his wife about how hard good men are hard to find, but then she also tells Red Sammy that he is a good man because he let a couple of men charge gas. Red Sammy’s wife says there isn’t no one that she can trust, â€Å"‘And I don’t count nobody out of that, not nobody,’ she repeated, looking at Red Sammy† (O’Connor 285). After they wreck a car shows up with The Misfit and his two side kicks in it, who turn out not to be good men. The grandmother realizes real soon that the man is The Misfit, she recognized him from the picture in the newspaper. Soon after arriving Bobby Lee takes Bailey and his son John Wesley into the woods to kill them. The grandmother went on about how the Misfit could be a good man, and how he should pray. The Misfit told her that his family was good people, he just wasn’t. Soon Bobby Lee and Hiram took the childrens mother, June Star, and the baby to the woods to meet up with the boys. The grandmother then realized that she must think of something soon, because she would be next. They started talking about Jesus and how he did or didn’t raise the dead. The Misfit said that if he didn’t know but if he would have been there he would have known better and wouldn’t be the way he is now. â€Å"Why you’re one of my own babies. You’re one of my own children! † (O’Connor 293). After the grandmother said that she touched him on the shoulder and the Misfit turned around and shot her three times in the chest. This was a great short story for irony, because the grandmother was correct about most things. The grandmother knew not to go towards Florida because The Misfit was headed that way after escaping from the pen. She was right about dressing like a lady in case of an accident, because indeed there was an accident, but she caused the accident by bringing her cat along without anyone knowing. Then there is speak of a good man, is there any such thing? Red Sammy’s wife wouldn’t even think of him as a good man, if your wife doesn’t believe you are no one really can. The Misfit comes along and talks to the grandmother for a while about good people, while doing so shoots her family then her dead. ‘â€Å"She would have been a good woman,† The Misfit said, â€Å"if it had been somebody there to shoot her every minute of her life†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (O’Connor 293). This goes with my assumption that the grandmother was just acting like a lady, and The Misfit even saw through her lies.

Language awarenes

The students may use the structure for present habits – He uses to drink a lot of coffee. 2. The pronunciation of the positive form and the negative form is the same / ]u:SST tall which may cause the students to still write the negative form with d – I didn't used to watch TV. Possible solutions and exercises 1 . To compare used to for past habits with Present Simple for present habits. Exercise – pair work â€Å"Ask and answer questions about your lives now and when you were children†. The students use clear structures such as: What do you do on Sunday – I usually/often watch TV. ‘ What did you do when you were a child?I used to help may mother in the garden. 2. â€Å"Fill in the gaps with used to or use to † exercise with positive and negative sentences such as: † When I lived in London .. Drink a lot of tea. ‘ He didn't†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Read a lot when he was a child. LEXICAL SET Lexical set borrow – lend Part of speech verb Meaning borrow something (from someone), (borrowed (apt, up) someone, (lent (apt, up)) lend someone something ‘boras/, ‘abroad/ /lend/, [lent/ lend something to Borrow shows that something is (temporarily) taken from another person. Lend shows that something is (temporarily) given to another person.Can I borrow your dictionary for 2 days? Am I taking your dictionary from you? – Yes Am I taking your dictionary forever? – No. I am taking it for 2 days only. Can you lend me 100 dollars until the end of the month please? Are you giving some money to me? – Yes Are you giving the money forever? – No. Only until the end of the month. Teaching level and context Pre-intermediate level; asking for a favor or help, talking about money; topics † – In the bank†, â€Å"Between friends† Anticipated problems 1 . Mistaking â€Å"lend† with â€Å"borrow' – Can you borrow me your car? /He borrows me some k ooks. 2.Intermediate, talking about problems, self-control; topics – â€Å"Are you your own Master? â€Å", â€Å"The worst day in my life† Anticipated problems Some students may think that using idioms makes their English more â€Å"native† and use them excessively. They may have difficulties in which context and situation a colloquial language is appropriate. (Headway) Possible solutions and exercises Association of the â€Å"red† as a color of â€Å"anger† can help students to remember the meaning. Explain the students that at this level they are exposed to colloquial language with recognition purposes and they are not expected to use idioms.

Discuss 10 major pieces of legislation, including names, years of passage…

Our society at present is composed mostly of aged individuals who needs long term care. Over the last century, the types of illnesses that had affected the American elderly had begun to change. The most common examples in the elderly today include arthritis (46 percent), hypertension (38 percent), hearing impairments and heart conditions (28 percent each), visual and orthopedic impairments (14 percent each), and diabetes (8 percent). About 80 to 85 percent of those over 65 have at least one chronic condition, and a substantial proportion have more than one such condition (Oktay, 1985).The federal government had passed a number of laws that have directly and indirectly affected the elderly population as it relates to their long-term care. These legislations will be discussed in this paper to demonstrate how relevant it is to the care of the elderly. President Lyndon Baines Johnson signed the Housing Act of 1965 into law in 1965, which was a part of the president’s â€Å"Great Society† program (Listokin and Burchell, n. d). The bill created the program that made subsidies available for low- and moderate-income rental units, and it also authorized the subsidy that fostered home ownership by the poor.The housing needs of inner-city areas were to be met by specially targeted subsidies. The best-known subsidy plan was the Model Cities Program (authorized by the 1966 Demonstration Cities Act), which focused on upgrading the physical (housing, public facilities) as well as the social (education, job training) aspects of inner-city areas. It also recognized the needs of older people for non-institutional congregate housing sites, most of which were age related. There are several programs that provide supportive housing to the frail elderly.The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) administers the Section 202 program, under which subsidies are provided for the building and managing of rental housing for the elderly (Clark, 1996). This legislatio n offered new services for the elderly to remain in their own homes and be cared for. The Medicare and Medicaid programs were signed into law on July 30, 1965. President Lyndon B. Johnson is pictured at the signing ceremony in Independence, Missouri at the Truman Library (Medicare†¦2006). These are two U. S. government programs that guarantee health insurance for the elderly and the poor, respectively.They were formally enacted in 1965 as Discuss 10 major pieces of legislation, including names, years of passage†¦ Page #2 amendments (Titles XVIII and XIX, respectively) to the Social Security Act (1935) and went into effect in 1966. Medicare is a federal health insurance program with a uniform eligibility and benefit structure throughout the U. S. The program covers most persons entitled to Social Security benefits, persons under age 65 entitled to disability benefits, and some persons with end-stage renal disease (Clark, 1966).Medicare is designed to meet the health care ne eds of acute diseases rather than long-term care. Medicare benefits are provided under two parts: Part A, Hospital Insurance and Part B, Supplementary Medical Insurance. Although most; Medicare recipients receive benefits under fee-for-service arrangements, approximately 10 percent of Medicare beneficiaries are enrolled in managed care plans. Under current law, Medicare home health benefits under either part are targeted at persons recovering from an acute illness.The beneficiary must be homebound and services must be ordered and reviewed periodically by a physician. Medicaid is a federal-state matching entitlement program providing medical assistance to low-income persons who are aged, blind, disabled, members of families with dependent children, or meet certain other criteria for need. Within federal guidelines, each state designs and administers its own program. There is considerable variation from state to state in persons covered, benefits included, and amounts of payment for s ervices.Medicaid finances home- and community-based care under three coverage options: (a) home health care, (b) personal care, and (c) home- and community-based waiver services. Medicaid is more responsive to the long-term care of the elderly than Medicare especially for those who are poor and disadvantaged. President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Older Americans Act into law on July 14, 1965. In addition to creating the Administration on Aging, it authorized grants to States for community planning and services programs, as well as for research, demonstration and training projects in the field of aging.Later amendments to the Act added grants to Area Agencies on Aging for local needs identification, planning, and funding of services, including but not limited to nutrition programs in the community as well as for those who are homebound; programs which serve Native American elders; services targeted at low-income minority elders; health promotion and disease prevention Discuss 10 maj or pieces of legislation, including names, years of passage†¦ Page #3 ctivities; in-home services for frail elders, and those services which protect the rights of older persons such as the long term care ombudsman program (http://www. vec. virginia. gov). This policy was an answer to many of the domestic difficulties of the elderly, it gave them supportive services that has been incorporated in the long-term care program of the elderly. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA) protects individuals who are 40 years of age or older from employment discrimination based on age. The ADEA's protections apply to both employees and job applicants.Under the ADEA, it is unlawful to discriminate against a person because of his/her age with respect to any term, condition, or privilege of employment, including hiring, firing, promotion, layoff, compensation, benefits, job assignments, and training (The U. S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission). The act was signed into la w by President Lyndon Johnson on December 15, 1967. Through this policy, the employed elderly were protected from unjust employment practices, in relation to long-term care; it gave the elderly earning power and thus could pay for health insurance that would pay for their health care needs.The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was signed into law by President Bush on July 26, 1990. The central purpose of this Act is to extend to individuals with disabilities civil rights protections similar to those provided to individuals on the basis of race, sex, national origin, and religion. Based on the concepts of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the ADA guarantees equal opportunity for individuals with disabilities in employment, public accommodation, transportation, state and local government services, and telecommunications.The ADA is the most significant federal law ensuring the full civil rights of all individuals with disabilities (Wodatch, 1990). This policy gave person’s wit h disability the opportunity to become functioning individuals in society, however, The policy is really not that relevant to long–term care, wherein people with mild or moderate disabilities are the only ones who can benefit from this policy since those who need institutional care and long-term care cannot become fully functioning members of society.Signed into law by President Nixon in 1972, the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program replaced a patchwork of state programs for the aged, blind, and disabled. SSI improves the Discuss 10 major pieces of legislation, including names, years of passage†¦ Page #4 quality of life for persons who are elderly or have a disability by providing financial support, incentives to work, and access to medical care (through Medicaid; enrollment in SSI generally brings with it eligibility for Medicaid).These elements of the program have helped make it possible for poor people who are elderly or have disabilities to gain freedom from d estitution and institutional care (Sweeney and Fremstad, 2005). The policy makes the costs of long-term care more bearable for the elderly and the poor, it however increases the administration of caring and nursing in the home rather than in institutions. On September 26, 1973, President Nixon signed the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 into law. This is a civil rights law to prohibit discrimination on the basis of disability in programs and activities, public and private that receives federal financial assistance.Section 504 states that â€Å"no qualified individual with a disability in the United States shall be excluded from, denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under† any program or activity that either receives Federal financial assistance or is conducted by any Executive agency or the United States Postal Service (Pfeiffer, 2002). This policy was the first to address the need and rights of persons with disabilities but was consequently met with opposition from the general public as it meant giving equal opportunity to persons with disability.The policy increased the demand for rehabilitative services but at that time was limited. Title XX of the Social Security Amendments of 1974 authorized grants to states for social services. These programs included protective services, homemaker services, transportation services, adult day care services, training for employment, information and referral, nutrition assistance, and health support (Oktay, 1985). The funds were distributed to the states according to the size of the population. States were to define the eligible population and design a package of services (many of which were mandated).While Title XX funds were not earmarked for the elderly, there are a number of services, which are targeted primarily to elderly populations, among them, homemaker services. In FY 1982, the Title XX funds were replaced by the Social Services block grant which allowed the states to choose the programs and services that they want to spend on to alleviate the Discuss 10 major pieces of legislation, including names, years of passage†¦ Page #5 conditions of the needy. However, social services for the elderly who can take care of themselves maybe provided.Most states provide homemaker and chore services as well as adult protective and emergency services for their elderly citizens, in order to prevent or reduce inappropriate institutional care (Clark, 1996). On July 1, 1988, President Bush signed into law H. R. 2470, the Medicare Catastrophic Coverage Act of 1988 (MCCA). This law provided the most significant expansion of the Medicare program since its inception. It also contained numerous technical amendments to the Medicare and Medicaid programs, as well as three new Medicaid provisions.However, the following year, the President signed into law Public Law 101-234 that repealed the major expansions of the Medicare program enacted the previous year (Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services). The act expanded Medicare coverage of inpatient hospital care and will also provide payment for outpatient prescription drugs and home i. v. therapy. For the prescription drug benefit, deductible and coinsurance payments will be phased in, and Medicare will establish payment limits. A per diem fee schedule will be established to pay for the supplies and services used in home i. . therapy. Providers of home therapy must have qualifications specified by the act (Grealy, 1989).The policy increased the demand for training of health-care providers that are home-based. It gave the elderly long-term care in their own homes rather than in hospitals or institutional facilities. It also paved the way for the employment boom of caregivers in the country. On July 26, 1990, President George H. W. Bush signed into law the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) — the world's first comprehensive civil rights law for people with disabilities.The Act prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities in employment, in public services (Title II), in public accommodations and in telecommunications (U. S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission). The policy enforced guidelines that called for states to review the funding they gave to long-term care. It also emphasized the desegregation of the mentally disabled from the rest of society. The act has brought a decrease of admittance to nursing and institutional facilities, and increased the demand for home-based healthcare services.